Effects of paced respiration and expectations on physiological and psychological responses to threat.
Abstract
While waiting to receive electric shocks, 105 males either (a) regulated their breathing at one half the normal rate, (b) regulated their breathing at the normal rate, or (c) did not regulate their breathing rate. Half of the subjects in each breathing condition were told that their breathing task would aid them in relaxing, whereas the other half were not given that expectation. Subjects in a no threat condition were not threatened with shocks, did not regulate their breathing, and were not provided with expectations. The results indicated that slowing respiration rate reduced physiological arousal as measured by skin resistance and finger pulse volume (but not heart rate) and reduced self-reports of anxiety. Expectations did not influence arousal. These data provide evidence for the effectiveness of paced respiration as a coping strategy, and they resolve the conflicting findings of previous investigations.
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The presence of core components in the three effective <5 min interventions suggests that short sessions may be particularly sensitive to practice implementation, requiring human guidance, multiple sessions, or long-term practice for effective stress reduction.
“The presence of core components in the three effective interventions [39,105,106] suggests that such short sessions may be particularly sensitive to practice implementation, such that human guidance, multiple sessions, or long-term practice are required for effective stress reduction.”
From Breathing Practices for Stress and Anxiety Reduction: Conceptual Framework of Implementation Guidelines Based on a Systematic Review of the Published Literature (2023) · cites this paper as [106]
Three of four effective unguided interventions included multiple sessions [39,80,106].
“Three of the four effective unguided interventions included multiple sessions [39,80,106]; and significant associations between effectiveness, intervention duration, and number of sessions suggest that breathing practices are more beneficial when performed repeatedly.”
From Breathing Practices for Stress and Anxiety Reduction: Conceptual Framework of Implementation Guidelines Based on a Systematic Review of the Published Literature (2023) · cites this paper as [106]
Significant associations between effectiveness, intervention duration, and number of sessions suggest that breathing practices are more beneficial when performed repeatedly.
“Three of the four effective unguided interventions included multiple sessions [39,80,106]; and significant associations between effectiveness, intervention duration, and number of sessions suggest that breathing practices are more beneficial when performed repeatedly.”
From Breathing Practices for Stress and Anxiety Reduction: Conceptual Framework of Implementation Guidelines Based on a Systematic Review of the Published Literature (2023) · cites this paper as [106]
Of the four effective interventions lacking human-guided training, three included multiple sessions [39,80,106], and the other [79] may have incorporated unreported and unintentional human guidance due to investigator presence.
“Of the four effective interventions that lacked such training, three included multiple sessions [39,80,106], and the other [79] may have incorporated some unreported and unintentional human guidance due to the investigator’s presence during the practice.”
From Breathing Practices for Stress and Anxiety Reduction: Conceptual Framework of Implementation Guidelines Based on a Systematic Review of the Published Literature (2023) · cites this paper as [106]
Human-guided training and long-term practice may not be necessary for exceedingly simple breathing practices, such as slightly slower-than-normal pace, which may be more accessible to breathwork-naive individuals.
“Conversely, human-guided training and long-term practice may not be necessary for exceedingly simple breathing practices, such as those at a slightly slower-than-normal pace (e.g., 10 or 8 bpm) that may be more accessible to breathwork-naive individuals [80,106].”
From Breathing Practices for Stress and Anxiety Reduction: Conceptual Framework of Implementation Guidelines Based on a Systematic Review of the Published Literature (2023) · cites this paper as [106]
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- Authors
- McCaul, K. D., Solomon, S., & Holmes, D. S.
- Affiliations
- North Dakota State University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1979
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 564-571
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2065131550
- Cited by
- 86
- References
- 16
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 2.21
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Heart Rate Variability and Autonomic Control
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Neuroscience of respiration and sleep
- Keywords
- threats, anxiety, physiological arousal, skin resistance, pulse volume, heart rate, coping strategies, expectations, relaxation
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Anxiety, Arousal, Fingers, Galvanic Skin Response, Heart Rate, Humans, Male, Respiration, Stress, Psychological
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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