Cited by 255Psychological Testing and AssessmentPersonality Traits and PsychologyPersonality Disorders and Psychopathology

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Circular reasoning about interpersonal behavior: Evidence concerning some untested assumptions underlying diagnostic classification

Wiggins, Jerry S., Phillips, Norman, Trapnell, Paul·1989·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.56.2.296

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The Search for Basic Dimensions of Personality
John, O. P. (1990) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-0555-2_1 · Cited by 45
Diagnosing and improving the quality of teachers’ interpersonal behaviour
Brok, P. J. D., Brekelmans, M., Lévy, J., & Wubbels, T. (2002) · International Journal of Educational Management · doi:10.1108/09513540210432155 · Cited by 42
Relationship of Personality Disorders to Observer Ratings of Interpersonal Style in Forensic Psychiatric Patients
Blackburn, R. (1998) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.1998.12.1.77 · Cited by 42
Early maladaptive schemas and interpersonal problems: A circumplex analysis of the YSQ-SF
Thimm, J. C. (2013) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · Cited by 42
Extending Color Psychology to the Personality Realm: Interpersonal Hostility Varies by Red Preferences and Perceptual Biases
Fetterman, A. K., Liu, T., & Robinson, M. D. (2014) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12087 · Cited by 41
The interpersonal nature of self-esteem: Do different measures of self-esteem possess similar interpersonal content?
Zeigler-Hill, V. (2010) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.09.005 · Cited by 26
“…sensitivity) by determining their locations in the space defined by the interpersonal circumplex (e.g., Brookings, Zembar, & Hochstetler, 2003; Gurtman, 1992; Pincus & Gurtman, 1995; Ruiz, Smith, & Rhodewalt, 2001; Wiggins et al., 1989; Zeigler-Hill, 2006; see Gurtman, 2009, for a review).”
Background
The Interpersonal Circumplex As a Model of Interpersonal Capabilities
Hofsess, C. D., & Tracey, T. J. G. (2005) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa8402_03 · Cited by 40
“Extensive support for the structural validity of the IAS and its relation to other measures has been demonstrated in a range of contexts (Tracey & Schneider, 1995; Wiggins, 1995; Wiggins et al., 1988, 1989).”
Background
The relation of rigidity across relationships with symptoms and functioning: An investigation with the revised Central Relationship Questionnaire.
McCarthy, K. S., Gibbons, M. B. C., & Barber, J. P. (2008) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0012578 · Cited by 38
Interpersonal Traits in Childhood: Development of the Child and Adolescent Interpersonal Survey
Sodano, S. M., & Tracey, T. J. G. (2006) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa8703_12 · Cited by 37
“Items were selected in a manner similar to that described by Wiggins, Phillips, and Trapnell (1989).”
Method
Interpersonal Problem Behaviors Associated with Dysfunctional Attitudes
Whisman, M. A., & Friedman, M. A. (1998) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1023/a:1018728322555 · Cited by 37
Social Competence: An Interpersonal Analysis and Reformulation
Gurtman, M. B. (1999) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027//1015-5759.15.3.233 · Cited by 37
Teachers' expectations of teacher–student interaction: Complementary and distinctive expectancy patterns
de Jong, R. J., van Tartwijk, J., Verloop, N., Veldman, I., & Wubbels, T. (2012) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2012.04.009 · Cited by 36
Circular Reasoning About Circular Assessment
Gurtman, M. B. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118001868.ch18 · Cited by 36
Psychometric Properties and a Preliminary Validation Study of the Italian Brief Version of the Communication Styles Inventory (CSI-B/I)
Diotaiuti, P., Valente, G., Mancone, S., & Grambone, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01421 · Cited by 35
Introduction to the Special Series on Integrating Personality, Psychopathology, and Psychotherapy Using Interpersonal Assessment
Pincus, A. L. (2010) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2010.513706 · Cited by 34
An evaluation of the circular structure of the Checklist of Interpersonal Transactions and the Checklist of Psychotherapy Transactions.
Tracey, T. J. G., & Schneider, P. L. (1995) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-0167.42.4.496 · Cited by 35
Diagnosis And Clinical Assessment: Current Status And Major Issues
McReynolds, P. (1989) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.40.020189.000503 · Cited by 34
What Are We Measuring? Convergence of Leadership with Interpersonal and Non-interpersonal Personality
de Vries, R. E. (2008) · Leadership · doi:10.1177/1742715008095188 · Cited by 33
“To call a scale (such as transformational leadership or leader’s consideration) an interpersonal construct, the scale’s correlations with the interpersonal circumplex facets should show a characteristic sinusoidal projection (Gurtman, 1993; Wiggins et al., 1989).”
Background
Social anxiety disorder and avoidant personality disorder from an interpersonal perspective
Frandsen, F. W., Simonsen, S., Poulsen, S., Sørensen, P. S., & Lau, M. E. (2019) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12214 · Cited by 34
Interpersonal rigidity, hostility, and complementarity in musical bands.
O’Connor, B. P., & Dyce, J. A. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.2.362 · Cited by 32
Social Trait Information in Deep Convolutional Neural Networks Trained for Face Identification
Parde, C. J., Hu, Y., Castillo, C. D., Sankaranarayanan, S., & O’Toole, A. J. (2019) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12729 · Cited by 31
“…consistent with previous studies, which identiﬁed two primary social-trait components corresponding to slight variations on the axes we found: afﬁliation and dominance (Wiggins et al., 1989), warmth and competence (Fiske et al., 2006), and trustworthiness and dominance (Oosterhof & Todorov, 2008).”
MethodResult
Interpersonal Development, Stability, and Change in Early Adulthood
Wright, A. G. C., Pincus, A. L., & Lenzenweger, M. F. (2011) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00761.x · Cited by 32
“Amplitude is identical, mathematically, to vector length (VL), which was originally used to summarize an interpersonal profile (e.g., Leary, 1957; Wiggins et al., 1989).”
The circle as a model for the interpersonal domain of Swedish trait terms
Rosén, A. (1992) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2410060404 · Cited by 28
Classification of Psychopathology
Acton, G., & Zodda, J. J. (2005) · Theory & Psychology · doi:10.1177/0959354305053220 · Cited by 25
A Brief Inventory of Interpersonal Problems–Circumplex Using Nonparametric Item Response Theory: Introducing the IIP–C–IRT
Sodano, S. M., & Tracey, T. J. G. (2010) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2010.528482 · Cited by 28
“C has not been examined (Carson, 1996; Leary, 1957; Pincus, 1994; Wiggins et al., 1989).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Contingent self-esteem and the interpersonal circumplex: The interpersonal pursuit of self-esteem
Zeigler‐Hill, V. (2005) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.08.009 · Cited by 26
“The interpersonal circumplex (Wiggins et al., 1989) served as the nomological system for evaluating the interpersonal styles associated with the contingencies of self-esteem.”
BackgroundInfluential
Pathways to individuality: Evolution and development of personality traits.
Buss, A. H. (2011) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/13087-000 · Cited by 25
Towards an integrative approach to communication styles: The Interpersonal Circumplex and the Five-Factor Theory of personality as frames of reference
Waldherr, A., & Muck, P. M. (2011) · Communications · doi:10.1515/comm.2011.001 · Cited by 25
“For this purpose, vector lengths are used to measure the intensity of individual scores in the circumplex ranging from the moderate and generally adaptive to the extreme and often maladaptive (Moskowitz and Zuroff, 2004; Wiggins et al., 1989).”
Method
A Revised Interpersonal Circumplex Inventory of Children’s Social Goals
Trucco, E. M., Wright, A. G. C., & Colder, C. R. (2011) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191111411672 · Cited by 25
“The circumplex model suggests that the two-dimensional scores should form two orthogonal dimensions (Wiggins et al., 1989).”
Background
Implementing High-Quality Educational Reform Efforts: An Interpersonal Circumplex Model Bridging Social and Personal Aspects of Teachers’ Motivation
Turner, J. E., Waugh, R. M., Summers, J. J., & Grove, C. M. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0564-2_13 · Cited by 27
“Circumplex models have been developed and validated (e.g., Wiggins et al. 1989 ) to explore an array of psychological phenomena such as levels of interpersonal interactions (Benjamin 1996), clinical interactions (Kiesler 1996), parental behavior (Schaefer 1965), and emotions (Barrett and Russell 1999).”
Background
Stability and change in interests: A longitudinal examination of grades 7 through college
Xu, H., & Tracey, T. (2016) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2016.02.002 · Cited by 28
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Hopwood, C. J., Koonce, E. A., & Morey, L. C. (2009) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-008-9124-y · Cited by 24
“Wiggins and Broughton 1991; Wiggins et al. 1989 ).”
Background
The Capacity to Describe other People Clearly: A Predictor of Interpersonal Problems in Brief Dynamic Psychotherapy
Horowitz, L. M., Rosenberg, S. E., & Kalehzan, B. M. (1992) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503309212331333588 · Cited by 23
Structure of Japanese Interpersonal Trait Words: An Analysis Based on the Psycho-Lexical Approach
Hashimoto, Y., & Oshio, A. (2019) · The Japanese Journal of Personality · doi:10.2132/personality.28.1.4 · Cited by 22
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Cook, V. D. (2005) · Cited by 22
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Woodward, L. E., Murrell, S. A., & Bettler, R. F. (2005) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503300512331334977 · Cited by 22
“The finding that extremity, as measured by vector length on the IIP, which mathematically captures both extremeness and rigidity of interpersonal behaviors (Wiggins, Phillips, & Trapnell, 1989 ), did not discriminate among the problem samples suggests that it is unrelated to maladaptive behaviors.”
BackgroundResult
Stability and Change of Social Goals in Adolescence
Trucco, E. M., Wright, A. G. C., & Colder, C. R. (2013) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12069 · Cited by 21
Circumplex Structure of the Impact Message Inventory (IMI–C): An Empirical Test With the Dutch Version
Hafkenscheid, A., & Rouckhout, D. (2009) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223890802634340 · Cited by 18
“Circumplexity of the IAS was successfully established by Wiggins et al. (1989); Gurtman and Pincus (2000); Pincus, Gurtman, and Ruiz (1998); and by Acton and Revelle (2002).”
Background
Differences between Selfand Peer Ratings of Interpersonal Problems
Hill, R. W., Zrull, M. C., & McIntire, K. (1998) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/107319119800500109 · Cited by 20
Systematizing dark personality traits within broader models of personality
Rogoza, R., Kowalski, C. M., Saklofske, D. H., & Schermer, J. A. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.111343 · Cited by 22
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Sodano, S. M., Tamulonis, J. P., Fabiano, G. A., Caserta, A., Hulme, K., Hulme, K., Stephan, G. R., & Tronci, F. (2019) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054718821728 · Cited by 21
“The IPC is a well-supported model of interpersonal personality that capitalizes on the empirically established linkages between the geometric properties of circles—as a result of circumplex structure—and Interpersonal theory (e.g., Leary, 1957; Wiggins et al., 1989; Wiggins et al., 1981).”
BackgroundMethod
An examination of the complementarity of interpersonal behavior.
Tracey, T. J. G. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.67.5.864 · Cited by 19
The Big Chill: Interpersonal Coldness and Emotion‐Labeling Skills
Moeller, S. K., Robinson, M. D., Wilkowski, B. M., & Hanson, D. M. (2011) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00738.x · Cited by 17
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Interpersonal Lexicon: Structural Evidence from Two Independently Constructed Verb-Based Taxonomies
Raad, B. D. (1999) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027//1015-5759.15.3.181 · Cited by 17
Feeling Torn When Everything Seems Right
Gebauer, J. E., Maio, G. R., & Pakizeh, A. (2013) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167213481679 · Cited by 18
An Exploration of the Relationship between Interpersonal Problems and Psychological Health
Sheffield, M. W., Carey, J., Patenaude, W., & Lambert, M. J. (1995) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1995.76.3.947 · Cited by 17
Well begun is half done: Interpersonal behaviours in distinct field interrogations with high‐value detainees
Christiansen, P., Alison, L. J., & Alison, E. K. (2017) · Legal and Criminological Psychology · doi:10.1111/lcrp.12111 · Cited by 16
Social Support as an Interpersonal Construct
Trobst, K. K. (1999) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027//1015-5759.15.3.246 · Cited by 16
Classifying personality types with occupational prototypes
Broughton, R., Trapnell, P. D., & Boyes, M. (1991) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/0092-6566(91)90022-i · Cited by 16
Principles of Personality Assessment
Wiggins, J. S., & Trobst, K. K. (1998) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b0080-4270(73)00006-7 · Cited by 17
Of Tooth and Claw: Predator Self-Identifications Mediate Gender Differences in Interpersonal Arrogance
Robinson, M. D., Bair, J. L., Liu, T., Scott, M. J., & Penzel, I. B. (2016) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-016-0706-y · Cited by 16
Facing an incompetent leader: The effects of a nonexpert leader on subordinates' perception and behaviour
Darioly, A., & Mast, M. S. (2010) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594320903429576 · Cited by 15
“Indeed, Williams and Karau (1991) showed that when the task is meaningful for the individual, he or she invested more effort in a dyadic task when the dyad partner was incompetent.”
Background
Nonverbal Synchrony and Complementarity in Unacquainted Same-Sex Dyads: A Comparison in a Competitive Context
Lozza, N., Spoerri, C., Ehlert, U., Kesselring, M., Hubmann, P., Tschacher, W., & Marca, R. L. (2018) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10919-018-0273-8 · Cited by 17
Interpersonal Correlates of Narcissism in Adolescents
Kerr, A. E., Patton, M. J., Lapan, R. T., & Hills, H. I. (1994) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.1994.tb01737.x · Cited by 14
Assessing Personality and Mood With Adjective Check List Methodology: A Review
Craig, R. J. (2005) · International Journal of Testing · doi:10.1207/s15327574ijt0503_1 · Cited by 15
A Circumplex Model of Interpersonal Attributes in Middle Childhood
Blas, L. D. (2007) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00459.x · Cited by 14
Interpersonal Assessment in Counseling and Psychotherapy
Denburg, T. F. V., Schmidt, J. A., & Kiesler, D. J. (1992) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.1992.tb02178.x · Cited by 13
We've come full circle: The universality of People-Things and Data-Ideas as core dimensions of vocational interests
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Assessing the Interpersonal Circumplex Model in Late Childhood
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“each scale was assigned its expected weight in a perfect circumplex structure to estimate a domain alpha level (Wiggins et al., 1989).”
BackgroundMethod
Persönlichkeit und Networking: Eine Analyse mittels Interpersonalem Circumplex
Wolff, H., & Muck, P. M. (2009) · Zeitschrift für Personalpsychologie · doi:10.1026/1617-6391.8.3.106 · Cited by 11
Associations between moral identity, social goal orientations, and moral decisions in adolescents
Schipper, N., Goagoses, N., & Koglin, U. (2022) · European Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17405629.2022.2056160 · Cited by 13
“Ojanen et al. (2005) noted a formula for merging the subscales to create agentic and communal vector scores, based on the procedure used by Locke (2003) and Wiggins et al. (1989).”
Method
Is Bullying Always about Status? Status Goals, Forms of Bullying, Popularity and Peer Rejection during Adolescence
Ojanen, T. J., Nostrand, D. F.-V., & McVean, M. L. (2023) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2023.2254347 · Cited by 10
“Following existing research with this instrument and using the formula originally provided by Wiggins et al. (1989), the Agentic Vector score measuring an overarching status goal orientation was calculated based on the information on the sub-scales: Agentic Vector = Agentic—Submissive +…”
Method
Relational Measures in Psychotherapy Research on Process and Outcome: A Commentary on the Studies
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Interpersonal Circumplex
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Development of a Japanese version of the International Personality Item Pool-Interpersonal Circumplex
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Behavioral landscapes and earth mover’s distance: A new approach for studying individual differences in density distributions
Ram, N., Benson, L., Brick, T. R., Conroy, D. E., & Pincus, A. L. (2016) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2016.06.010 · Cited by 9
“Thus, the results add to the growing body of validity evidence supporting these three specific features of individuals’ interpersonal lives as important aspects of “interpersonal style” (e.g. Gurtman & Balakrishnan, 1998; Markey et al., 2015, Sadikaj et al., 2015, Wiggins et al., 1989).”
The interpersonal circumplex as a structural model in clinical research: Examples from group psychotherapy, interpersonal problems, and personality disorders.
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Nonverbal displays of dominance and prestige: Evidence for cross-cultural and early-emerging recognitionPreprint
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An Exploratory Analysis of the Role of Interpersonal Styles in Eating Disorder Prevention Outcomes
Norman, K., Sodano, S. M., & Cook‐Cottone, C. P. (2014) · The Journal for Specialists in Group Work · doi:10.1080/01933922.2014.948234 · Cited by 8
A Validation Study of the Interpersonal Circumplex Scales in the Italian Language
Blas, L. D. (2000) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027//1015-5759.16.3.177 · Cited by 9
“In Study 1, structural integrity (Gurtman, 1997) and diagnostic validity (Wiggins et al., 1989) were verified.”
BackgroundInfluential
The Circumplex model for interpersonal trait adjectives in Italian
Blas, L. D., & Forzi, M. (1998) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(97)00139-6 · Cited by 8
Are There Specific Relationships Between Symptom Patterns and Interpersonal Problems Among Psychiatric Outpatients?
Bjerke, E., Solbakken, O. A., & Monsen, J. T. (2013) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2013.834441 · Cited by 8
“In accordance with this, Wiggins, Phillips, and Trapnell (1989) found that intensity (vector length) by itself was not a general measure of psychopathology, but that it was an index of pathology within some octants (as measured with the self-report instrument Interpersonal Adjective Scales [IAS];…”
Background
Comparative value priorities of Chinese and New Zealand businesspeople and their relationships to preferred managerial leader behaviour
Littrell, R. F. (2010) · Tuwhera (Auckland University of Technology) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.2.28694.98884 · Cited by 8
Can the Big Five Help Salvage the DSM?
Carson, R. C. (1993) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0402_4 · Cited by 8
Assimilation and Contrast in Spontaneous Comparisons: Heterogeneous Effects of Standard Extremity in Facial Evaluations
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Power as Active Self: From Acquisition to the Expression and Use of Power
Guinote, A., & Chen, S. (2018) · UCL Discovery (University College London) · Cited by 7
Unravelling team creativity: complementarity between dyadic team members results in higher team creativity as mediated by informational exchange
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“Individuals high in agency assert independence, influence, and control in social interactions, whereas those high in communion seek con - nection, cooperation, and social harmony (Locke, 2000; Wiggins, Phillips, & Trapnell, 1989 ).”
Social Emotional Adjustment and Interpersonal Problems: A Circumplex Analysis of the Weinberger Adjustment Typology
Pincus, A. L., & Boekman, L. F. (1995) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191195002001007 · Cited by 6
Associations between Teachers’ Interpersonal Behavior and Students’ Socio-Emotional Learning Skills in Social Sciences Classrooms in Turkey
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Narcissism on interpersonal circumplex model: Reactions to imaginary abandonment and rejection
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“Indeed, it has been suggested that personality disorders are diagnostic correlations of interpersonal problems that are defined by the cyclical model (Wiggins et al., 1989; Horowitz et al., 2003).”
Background
Implicit Self-Importance in an Interpersonal Pronoun Categorization Task
Fetterman, A. K., Robinson, M. D., & Gilbertson, E. P. (2014) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-014-9205-x · Cited by 5
“The IAS-R is a well-validated (Wiggins and Broughton 1991;Wiggins, Phillips, and Trapnell 1989) instrument in which adjectives are rated according to howwell they describe the self (1=extremely inaccurate; 6=extremely accurate).”
A study on the structure of conceptual representations of trait terms in everyday Japanese language
Isaka, H. (1992) · Japanese Psychological Research · doi:10.4992/psycholres1954.34.77 · Cited by 5
Situaciones de interacción y metas sociales en la adolescencia: desarrollo y validación inicial del Cuestionario de Metas Sociales (CMS)
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Interpersonal Circumplex
Gurtman, M. B. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_1233 · Cited by 5
The Connections between Pathological Personality Traits and Interpersonal Behavior
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A Rigorous Test of the Fit of the Circumplex Model to Big Five Personality Data: Theoretical and Methodological Issues and Two Large Sample Empirical Tests
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Authors: Wiggins, J. S., Phillips, N., & Trapnell, P.
Affiliations: University of British Columbia (CA)
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1989-02
Volume: 56
Issue: 2
Pages: 296-305
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.56.2.296
OpenAlex: W2092889888
Cited by: 255
References: 23
Citations by year: 2026: 2 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 10
FWCI: 14.80
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Disorders and Psychopathology
Keywords: interpersonal behavior, circular reasoning, diagnostic classification, personality assessment

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Circular reasoning about interpersonal behavior: Evidence concerning some untested assumptions underlying diagnostic classification

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