The DOI matches its Crossref record; 34 of the 34 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.
Abstract
Stereotype threat is being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group. Studies 1 and 2 varied the stereotype vulnerability of Black participants taking a difficult verbal test by varying whether or not their performance was ostensibly diagnostic of ability, and thus, whether or not they were at risk of fulfilling the racial stereotype about their intellectual ability. Reflecting the pressure of this vulnerability, Blacks underperformed in relation to Whites in the ability-diagnostic condition but not in the nondiagnostic condition (with Scholastic Aptitude Tests controlled). Study 3 validated that ability-diagnosticity cognitively activated the racial stereotype in these participants and motivated them not to conform to it, or to be judged by it. Study 4 showed that mere salience of the stereotype could impair Blacks' performance even when the test was not ability diagnostic. The role of stereotype vulnerability in the standardized test performance of ability-stigmatized groups is discussed.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Steele & Aronson (1995) found that”
From In Pursuit of Antiracist Social Justice: Denaturalizing Whiteness in the Academic Library (2015) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Other studies have found that bringing the social identities and/or the stereotypes of students of certain (typically low-status) groups to mind can reduce their ability and desire to learn (Lyons, Simms, Begolli, & Richland, 2018;V. J. Taylor & Walton, 2011), their motivation and persistence on academic tasks (Steele & Aronson, 1995) and, even among high achievers, their commitment to their”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Social identity threat and/or identity incompatibility have been found to reduce the performance of Black and Latino students in U.S. schools and colleges (Chu & Brown, 2017;Gonzales, Blanton, & Williams, 2002;Steele & Aronson, 1995); students and young children of lower social class in the United States (Désert, Préaux, & Jund, 2009;B. Spencer & Castano, 2007), France (Croizet & Claire, 1998),”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“but that the performance of the Black students dropped when the test was described as assessing their intelligence and thus became relevant to the prevalent negative stereotype about their academic ability.”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“They are also thought to explain the finding that describing a test in terms that make evaluation possible-and thus the possibility of confirming the negative stereotype-also reduces performance among low-status groups (Steele & Aronson, 1995).”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Negative stereotypes are key antecedents to threat in theories of social identity threat (especially stereotype threat; Steele & Aronson, 1995)”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“For example, one study conducted in the United States found that White students and Black students performed equally well on an intelligence test (when covariate adjusted) when the test was described as a series of puzzles”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“However, methodological and contextual accounts, such as stereotype threat (e.g., Steele & Aronson, 1995) or differential item functioning (DIF; e.g., Abad et al., 2004), suggest potential avenues through which changes to the administration of CATs could minimise mean score group differences.”
From Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review (2025) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“However, when they removed the relevancy of the stereotype by framing the same task as an exercise of problem solving, rather than an assessment of their intellect, there was no difference in the performance of Black and White students, again controlling for initial differences in skill level.”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“In their influential work, Steele and Aronson (1995) showed that when the stereotype of African American intellectual inferiority was”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Thinking that one is being evaluated through the lens of negative stereotypes can focus a person's attention on the negative aspects of a stereotype and serve to undermine achievement (e.g., Steele & Aronson, 1995).”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
Citations
Cites
(1954) · Cited by 15,935
Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change
Bandura, A. (1978) · Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0146-6402(78)90002-4 · Cited by 10,586
Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components
Devine, P. G. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5 · Cited by 5,673
Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma.
Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.96.4.608 · Cited by 3,426
The effect of emotion on cue utilization and the organization of behavior
Easterbrook, J. A. (1959) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0047707 · Cited by 3,090 · cited 1×
“…may interfere with their performance in a variety of ways: by causing an arousal that reduces the range of cues participants are able to use (e.g., Easterbrook, 1959), or by diverting attention onto task-irrelevant worries (e.g., Sarason, 1972; Wine, 1971), by causing an interfering…”
BackgroundHow Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement
Jensen, A. (1969) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/haer.39.1.l3u15956627424k7 · Cited by 2,907
(1980) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 1,935
Baumeister, R. F. (1984) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.46.3.610 · Cited by 1,665
Anxiety: Current Trends in Theory and Research
Spielberger, C. D. (1972) · Cited by 1,640
The trouble of thinking: Activation and application of stereotypic beliefs.
Gilbert, D. T., & Hixon, J. G. (1991) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.60.4.509 · Cited by 1,366
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 6,201–6,300 of 8,461
The role of homophily in serving or suppressing firm relationship marketing opportunities
Chenevert, A. (2013) · Texas ScholarWorks (Texas Digital Library) · Cited by 1
The Impact of Stereotypes on Public Speaking Performance and Anxiety
Kim, S. Y. (2022) · Digital Archive @ GSU · doi:10.57709/1059903 · Cited by 1
African American female engineering students' experience with stereotype threat: A narrative inquiry
Gregory, S. L. (2015) · QScience Proceedings · doi:10.5339/qproc.2015.elc2014.3 · Cited by 1
Cultural and Diversity Issues in Mediation and Negotiation
Hoffman, D. A., & Triantafillou, K. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-8918-4_10 · Cited by 1
Rose, C. D. (2003) · Journal of Crime and Justice · doi:10.1080/0735648x.2003.9721184 · Cited by 1
Special session — "Stereotype threat" and my students: What can I do about it?
Eschenbach, E. A., Virnoche, M. E., & Lord, S. M. (2014) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie.2014.7044208 · Cited by 1
Public Speaking: Stereotype threat and control
Désert, M., Gonçalves, G., & Leyens, J. (2013) · International Journal of Social Psychology Revista de Psicología Social · doi:10.1174/021347413806196726 · Cited by 2
Purcell, D. (2009) · Sociological Focus · doi:10.1080/00380237.2009.10571341 · Cited by 1
Tsai, M. (2003) · Comparative Sociology · doi:10.1163/156913303100418799 · Cited by 1
Caputo, A. (2015) · Fisher Digital Publications (St. John Fisher College) · Cited by 1
Lloyd, H. J. (2013) · UKnowledge (University of Kentucky) · Cited by 1
Wright, J. (2003) · Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/1474973032000114905 · Cited by 1
Radicaliserende moslims en moslima's sociaal-psychologisch bekeken
Meertens, R. W. (2007) · UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) · Cited by 1
Teaching for Greater Inclusion: Searching for Talent as a Potentially Harmful Teaching Practice
Vogt, C. M. (2006) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie.2006.322386 · Cited by 1
The Effects of an At-Risk Label on the Attribution of Student Behavior
Hartwick, O., Kubisiak, K., & Marshik, T. T. (2014) · Cited by 1
Tillman, D. R. (2012) · NCSU Libraries Repository (North Carolina State University Libraries) · Cited by 1
Burrell, J. O., Fredericks, A., & Fleming, L. N. (2020) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--22496 · Cited by 1
Bogan, E. D., & Slaughter‐Defoe, D. T. (2012) · Contributions to human development · doi:10.1159/000336269 · Cited by 1
A Phenomenological Study of Stress and Burnout Experienced by Licensed Alcohol and Drug Counselors
Crim, D. (2013) · UST Research Online (University of St. Thomas - Minnesota) · Cited by 1
Aggression In Response To Social Rejection: Groups Vs. Individuals
Nicholls, R. M. (2014) · CSUN ScholarWorks (California State University, Northridge) · Cited by 1
Making YouTube and Facebook Videos: Gender Differences Among College Students
Vedantham, A. (2014) · Cited by 1
Playing Prejudice: The Impact of Game-Play on Attributions of Gender and Racial Bias
Hammer, J. (2014) · Cited by 1
The associations among school stratification, racial identity, and future orientation in Black youth
Legette, K. B. (2015) · NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro) · Cited by 1
Minaccia da stereotipo e comportamenti organizzativi per gli operatori sanitari
Buonocore, F., Russo, M., & Roberson, L. (2016) · MECOSAN · doi:10.3280/mesa2015-096007 · Cited by 1
Evaluation.; National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing,
Technical, C., & Angeles, L. (2001) · Cited by 1
Kyridis, A., Markaki, A., & Ziontaki, Z. (2016) · International Journal of Learning Teaching and Educational Research · Cited by 1
Thompson, G. N. (2012) · Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) · Cited by 1
Breaking Stereotypes of Aging Women
Hollis‐Sawyer, L., & Dykema‐Engblade, A. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-420136-1.00013-x · Cited by 1
Bridging the Latino Achievement Gap: The Importance of Interpreters in Schools
Williams, R. R. (2016) · UKnowledge (University of Kentucky) · Cited by 1
Prominority policies and cultural change: A dilemma for minorities
Mucchi‐Faina, A. (2009) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511804465.014 · Cited by 1
Underachievement and Its Causes in EFL Learning in China’s Non-government Universities
Ma, F. (2016) · Journal of Language Teaching and Research · doi:10.17507/jltr.0704.24 · Cited by 1
Bethea, K. A. (2016) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh) · Cited by 1
Valuing the History, Missions and Traditions of HBCUs
Bryan, D. M., & Stewart, F. R. (2016) · Advances in higher education and professional development book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-0311-8.ch001 · Cited by 1
Prewitt, K.-R. M. (2015) · Loyola eCommons (Loyola University of Chicago) · Cited by 1
Small, M. L. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195384352.003.0004 · Cited by 1
1 Social Capital and Organizational Embeddedness
Small, M. L. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195384352.003.0001 · Cited by 1
Alcoff, L. M. (2006) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/0195137345.003.0008 · Cited by 1
Gender, Race and Ethnic Relations
Bartos, S. E., & Hegarty, P. V. (2014) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-137-29118-9_11 · Cited by 1
Rose, S. J. (2013) · Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) · Cited by 1
I!mposter: Understanding, Discussing, and Overcoming Imposter Syndrome
Cooksey, K. L. (2012) · Cited by 1
Smith, J. R., Rice, H. J., & Chang, M. (2016) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s1479-364420160000019017 · Cited by 1
The Somali Immersion Experience: An Intercultural Immersion
Lewis, D., & deKoven, A. (2016) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-78635-064-020161009 · Cited by 1
Acevedo, A., & Ignacio, F. (2016) · Digital Commons-DePaul (DePaul University) · Cited by 1
STEREOTYPE THREAT AND STEREOTYPE LIFT: THE CASE OF 10 YEAR OLD GIRLS AND BOYS
Kwiatkowska, A., & Mróz, M. (2016) · Civitas et Lex · doi:10.31648/cetl.2339 · Cited by 1
Stabilität und Wandel - Bildung im Lebenslauf
Kolland, F., & Ahmadi, P. (2010) · REPORT Zeitschrift für Weiterbildungsforschung · doi:10.3278/rep1003w043 · Cited by 1
Spoor, J., & Turney, R. (2017) · IRL - University of Missouri, St. Louis (University of Missouri–St. Louis) · Cited by 1
Towards a research program in Kantian positive psychology
Frierson, P. R. (2017) · Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A · doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2017.07.005 · Cited by 1
Haas, K. E., Mers, M. D., Fulton, B., Terrana, K. N., & Horton, J. J. (2010) · Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research · doi:10.24839/1089-4136.jn15.1.8 · Cited by 1
Restorative Schooling: The Healing Power of Counternarrative
Benavides, V. (2017) · Occasional Paper Series · doi:10.58295/2375-3668.1153 · Cited by 1
The Effect of Economic Scarcity Priming on Perception of Race.
Pilucik, D. L., & Madsen, J. K. (2017) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 1
The Situationist Challenge to Free Will
Garvey, B. (2018) · Historical-analytical studies on nature, mind and action · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-99295-2_6 · Cited by 1
Minority Women in the Workplace: Early Career Challenges and Strategies for Overcoming Obstacles
Yates, N., & Rincon, R. (2018) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--28673 · Cited by 1
Kanyeredzi, A. (2018) · Qualitative Research · doi:10.1177/1468794118777921 · Cited by 2
Rotich, W. K. (2016) · International Sports Studies · doi:10.30819/iss.38-2.03 · Cited by 1
Remedial Enrollment During the 1st Year of College, Institutional Transfer, and Degree Attainment
Saw, G. K. (2018) · The Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.1080/00221546.2018.1493668 · Cited by 1
Women Scientists Who Made Nuclear Astrophysics
Hampton, C. V., Lugaro, M. A., Papakonstantinou, P., Isar, P. G., Nordström, B., Özkan, N., Aliotta, M., Ćiprijanović, A., Curtis, S., Criscienzo, M. D., et al. (2019) · Springer proceedings in physics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-13876-9_67 · Cited by 1
Kausel, E. E., Slaughter, J. E., Evans, J. M., & Stein, J. H. (2018) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-018-9590-5 · Cited by 1
Sustainable development without amicable growth challenges of societal injustice
Naqvi, T. F. (2018) · SOCIALSCI JOURNAL · Cited by 1
Media's Role in Mitigating Culturally Competent Understanding of Latino Youth
Lisotto, M. J., Fortuna, L. R., Powell, P., & Parekh, R. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-54854-0.00014-x · Cited by 2
Modeling Initial Participation of Diverse Communities in Competitive Swimming
Wolfrom, D., Murray, E., & Dominguez, A. (2018) · International Journal of Aquatic Research and Education · doi:10.25035/ijare.11.01.07 · Cited by 1
Eliminating the Achievement Gap: The 21ST Century Program
Hummel, M. L. (1997) · About Campus Enriching the Student Learning Experience · doi:10.1177/108648229700100609 · Cited by 1
A Comprehensive Model for Undergraduate Science Education Reform To Better Serve the Underserved
Swartz, J. E., & Gregg‐Jolly, L. A. (2018) · ACS symposium series · doi:10.1021/bk-2018-1301.ch003 · Cited by 1
Hispanic Student Thriving at Hispanic-Serving Institutions.
Allen, M. C. (2018) · ProQuest LLC eBooks · Cited by 1
Genkova, P. (2018) · European Journal of Business Science and Technology · doi:10.11118/ejobsat.v4i2.115 · Cited by 1
THE CHALLENGE OF COMMUNITY COLLEGE STUDENT ACADEMIC MOTIVATION: THE GO FOR GROWTH! INTERVENTION
Wright, J. C. (2018) · Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) · doi:10.17615/nn6f-n477 · Cited by 1
Soziale Einstellungen im Schulkontext
Petersen, L. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-55754-9_23 · Cited by 1
Grange, J. J. P. L., & Botha, K. F. H. (2019) · Journal of Psychology in Africa · doi:10.1080/14330237.2019.1567993 · Cited by 1
Murawska, I., Przyborowska, B., Kopińska, V., & Błajet, P. P. (2019) · Bulletin of Geography Socio-economic series · doi:10.2478/bog-2019-0003 · Cited by 1
Redd, L. (2019) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh) · Cited by 1
Lagos, R., Canessa, E., & Chaigneau, S. E. (2019) · Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour · doi:10.1111/jtsb.12207 · Cited by 2
Chuang, S., & Crowder, C. L. (2019) · Advances in higher education and professional development book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-8286-1.ch013 · Cited by 1
Saniatuzzulfa, R., & Fitria, J. N. (2019) · Insight Jurnal Pemikiran dan Penelitian Psikologi · doi:10.32528/ins.v15i1.1700 · Cited by 1
A Graduate Student Pedagogy Seminar in Chemical Engineering
Smith, C., Sitomer, A., & Koretsky, M. (2020) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--29686 · Cited by 1
Un champ d’application : les ressources humaines et l’insertion professionnelle
Steiner, D. D., Roques, M., Pichot, N., & Maisonneuve, C. (2010) · Presses universitaires de Rennes eBooks · doi:10.4000/books.pur.60770 · Cited by 1
Advising African American Males: From the Advisor's Viewpoint
McClain, T. J. (2019) · Cited by 1
Eccles, N. S., & Magagula, B. (2019) · African Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.15249/13-1-221 · Cited by 1
ITO, Y., Morinaga, Y., Sagara, J., Adachi, T., & Suzuki, A. (2019) · The Annual Report of Educational Psychology in Japan · doi:10.5926/arepj.58.297 · Cited by 1
The Lingering Effects of Stereotype Threat: Stereotype Threat Spillover
Zhen, W., & Yong, X. (2019) · Psychology of China · doi:10.35534/pc.0107029 · Cited by 1
Multigenerational Forces and Regenerative Capacities: Matter, Weather, Flesh, and the Sociogenic
Dixon‐Román, E. J. (2019) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/00131946.2019.1660659 · Cited by 1
Gross, S. F. (2019) · Fisher Digital Publications (St. John Fisher College) · Cited by 1
Prikhodkine, A. (2013) · Cahiers du Centre de Linguistique et des Sciences du Langage · doi:10.26034/la.cdclsl.2013.617 · Cited by 1
Defining Myself In: My Early Career Journey
DeBlaere, C. (2019) · Women & Therapy · doi:10.1080/02703149.2019.1684672 · Cited by 1
Frauen in Führungspositionen – Einige Fakten
Palmer, R. A.-M. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-25278-6_12 · Cited by 1
Culturally Restorative Instruction
Revell, M. D. (2019) · Advances in early childhood and K-12 education · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-1847-2.ch010 · Cited by 1
O Sexismo nos Jogos Eletrônicos
Ribeiro, G. C. B. (2019) · Revista Discente Planície Científica · Cited by 1
Haller, J. J. (2008) · CSUSB ScholarWorks (California State University, San Bernardino) · Cited by 1
Borsich, S., & Deptuła, M. (2018) · Studia Edukacyjne · doi:10.14746/se.2018.49.12 · Cited by 1
Iorio, M. (2020) · Journal of Studies in Education · doi:10.5296/jse.v10i1.16198 · Cited by 1
CONFIDENCE AND MOTIVATION OF NOVICE ENGLISH TEACHERS AT VNU IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH
Lan, L. T. (2020) · VNU Journal of Foreign Studies · doi:10.25073/2525-2445/vnufs.4498 · Cited by 1
O autoconceito cognitivo de estudantes pretos (as) e pardos (as)
Batista, M. D. N., da Cunha, J. M., Ricci, B. N., Vasconselos, D. D. S., Bittencourt, A. C., & Macedo, A. M. B. D. (2020) · Psicologia Argumento · doi:10.7213/psicolargum.37.97.ao01 · Cited by 1
Cooper, K. M. (2018) · Cited by 1
Heidemeier, H., Otten, S., & Göritz, A. S. (2020) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430220916551 · Cited by 1
Future 4 Teens: A Community-Based Therapeutic Model for African American Youth
Pritchett-Johnson, B., & Jones, M. K. (2020) · The Journal for Specialists in Group Work · doi:10.1080/01933922.2020.1789792 · Cited by 4
A limited defense of talent as a criterion for access to educational opportunities
Thompson, W. C. (2020) · Educational Philosophy and Theory · doi:10.1080/00131857.2020.1804358 · Cited by 1
An Evaluation of Business Students' Perceptions about Their Personal Everyday Creativity.
Homayoun, S. (2019) · ProQuest LLC eBooks · Cited by 1
Maddox, K. B., Crittle, C. S., Sommers, S. R., & Tropp, L. R. (2020) · Peace psychology book series · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-44113-5_6 · Cited by 1
School Psychologists in Early Childhood Settings
Alfonso, V. C., Ruby, S. F., Wissel, A. M., & Davari, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.033 · Cited by 1
Addressing “Won’t Do” Issues in Mathematics
Skinner, C. H., Wright, S. P., & McCallum, E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.003 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1995-11
- Volume
- 69
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 797-811
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2161923363
- Semantic Scholar
- 71dbd1d5c13d7661857b0d245f7ce1d3fac7b0c5
- Cited by
- 9,020
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 346 · 2025: 505 · 2024: 406 · 2023: 462 · 2022: 420 · 2021: 486 · 2020: 532 · 2019: 571 · 2018: 463 · 2017: 461 · 2016: 497 · 2015: 471 · 2014: 451 · 2013: 361 · 2012: 383
- FWCI
- 117.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH051977)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Keywords
- stereotype threat, African Americans, standardized test performance, racial stereotypes, test-taking motivation, racial achievement gap
- MeSH terms
- Black or African American, Female, Humans, Intelligence Tests, Male, Stereotyping, Task Performance and Analysis
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
