The DOI matches its Crossref record; 34 of the 34 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.
Abstract
Stereotype threat is being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group. Studies 1 and 2 varied the stereotype vulnerability of Black participants taking a difficult verbal test by varying whether or not their performance was ostensibly diagnostic of ability, and thus, whether or not they were at risk of fulfilling the racial stereotype about their intellectual ability. Reflecting the pressure of this vulnerability, Blacks underperformed in relation to Whites in the ability-diagnostic condition but not in the nondiagnostic condition (with Scholastic Aptitude Tests controlled). Study 3 validated that ability-diagnosticity cognitively activated the racial stereotype in these participants and motivated them not to conform to it, or to be judged by it. Study 4 showed that mere salience of the stereotype could impair Blacks' performance even when the test was not ability diagnostic. The role of stereotype vulnerability in the standardized test performance of ability-stigmatized groups is discussed.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Steele & Aronson (1995) found that”
From In Pursuit of Antiracist Social Justice: Denaturalizing Whiteness in the Academic Library (2015) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Other studies have found that bringing the social identities and/or the stereotypes of students of certain (typically low-status) groups to mind can reduce their ability and desire to learn (Lyons, Simms, Begolli, & Richland, 2018;V. J. Taylor & Walton, 2011), their motivation and persistence on academic tasks (Steele & Aronson, 1995) and, even among high achievers, their commitment to their”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Social identity threat and/or identity incompatibility have been found to reduce the performance of Black and Latino students in U.S. schools and colleges (Chu & Brown, 2017;Gonzales, Blanton, & Williams, 2002;Steele & Aronson, 1995); students and young children of lower social class in the United States (Désert, Préaux, & Jund, 2009;B. Spencer & Castano, 2007), France (Croizet & Claire, 1998),”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“but that the performance of the Black students dropped when the test was described as assessing their intelligence and thus became relevant to the prevalent negative stereotype about their academic ability.”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“They are also thought to explain the finding that describing a test in terms that make evaluation possible-and thus the possibility of confirming the negative stereotype-also reduces performance among low-status groups (Steele & Aronson, 1995).”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Negative stereotypes are key antecedents to threat in theories of social identity threat (especially stereotype threat; Steele & Aronson, 1995)”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“For example, one study conducted in the United States found that White students and Black students performed equally well on an intelligence test (when covariate adjusted) when the test was described as a series of puzzles”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“However, methodological and contextual accounts, such as stereotype threat (e.g., Steele & Aronson, 1995) or differential item functioning (DIF; e.g., Abad et al., 2004), suggest potential avenues through which changes to the administration of CATs could minimise mean score group differences.”
From Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review (2025) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“However, when they removed the relevancy of the stereotype by framing the same task as an exercise of problem solving, rather than an assessment of their intellect, there was no difference in the performance of Black and White students, again controlling for initial differences in skill level.”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“In their influential work, Steele and Aronson (1995) showed that when the stereotype of African American intellectual inferiority was”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Thinking that one is being evaluated through the lens of negative stereotypes can focus a person's attention on the negative aspects of a stereotype and serve to undermine achievement (e.g., Steele & Aronson, 1995).”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
Citations
Cites
(1954) · Cited by 15,935
Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change
Bandura, A. (1978) · Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0146-6402(78)90002-4 · Cited by 10,586
Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components
Devine, P. G. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5 · Cited by 5,673
Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma.
Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.96.4.608 · Cited by 3,426
The effect of emotion on cue utilization and the organization of behavior
Easterbrook, J. A. (1959) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0047707 · Cited by 3,090 · cited 1×
“…may interfere with their performance in a variety of ways: by causing an arousal that reduces the range of cues participants are able to use (e.g., Easterbrook, 1959), or by diverting attention onto task-irrelevant worries (e.g., Sarason, 1972; Wine, 1971), by causing an interfering…”
BackgroundHow Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement
Jensen, A. (1969) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/haer.39.1.l3u15956627424k7 · Cited by 2,907
(1980) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 1,935
Baumeister, R. F. (1984) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.46.3.610 · Cited by 1,665
Anxiety: Current Trends in Theory and Research
Spielberger, C. D. (1972) · Cited by 1,640
The trouble of thinking: Activation and application of stereotypic beliefs.
Gilbert, D. T., & Hixon, J. G. (1991) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.60.4.509 · Cited by 1,366
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Meyer, I. H. (2003) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674 · Cited by 14,736
Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.363 · Cited by 8,848
Assessment and Classroom Learning
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998) · Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice · doi:10.1080/0969595980050102 · Cited by 8,152
A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance
Steele, C. M. (1997) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.52.6.613 · Cited by 6,770
Self-citationAdding It Up: Helping Children Learn Mathematics
Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J. O., & Findell, B. R. (2013) · DSpace Biblioteca Universidad de Talca (Universidad de Talca) · Cited by 4,084
Stereotype Threat and Women's Math Performance
Spencer, S. J., Steele, C. M., & Quinn, D. M. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1998.1373 · Cited by 3,435
Self-citationPower, approach, and inhibition.
Keltner, D., Gruenfeld, D. H., & Anderson, C. (2003) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.110.2.265 · Cited by 3,427
The Social Psychology of Stigma
Major, B., & O'Brien, L. T. (2005) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070137 · Cited by 3,114
Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals
Elliot, A. J. (1999) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3403_3 · Cited by 3,103
The gender similarities hypothesis.
Hyde, J. S. (2005) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.60.6.581 · Cited by 3,084
Poverty impedes cognitive function.
Mani, A., Mullainathan, S., Shafir, E., & Zhao, J. (2013) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1238041 · Cited by 2,967
Handbook of Motivation at School
Wentzel, K. R., & Wigfield, A. (2009) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203879498 · Cited by 2,516
(2000) · The Journal of Negro Education · Cited by 2,472
8 Social Hierarchy: The Self‐Reinforcing Nature of Power and Status
Magee, J. C., & Galinsky, A. D. (2008) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/19416520802211628 · Cited by 2,385
Contending with group image: The psychology of stereotype and social identity threat
Steele, C. M., Spencer, S. J., & Aronson, J. (2002) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(02)80009-0 · Cited by 2,201
Self-citationA question of belonging: Race, social fit, and achievement.
Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.82 · Cited by 2,163
`How many cases do I need?': On science and the logic of case selection in field-based research
Small, M. L. (2009) · Ethnography · doi:10.1177/1466138108099586 · Cited by 2,023
When Multiplication Doesn't Equal Quick Addition: Examining Intersectionality as a Research Paradigm
Hancock, A. (2007) · Perspectives on Politics · doi:10.1017/s1537592707070065 · Cited by 2,148
Performance in competitive environments: gender differences
Gneezy, U., Niederle, M., & Rustichini, A. (2003) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1162/00335530360698496 · Cited by 1,997
Aronson, J., Fried, C. B., & Good, C. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.2001.1491 · Cited by 1,889
Self-citationDevelopment of Achievement Motivation
Wigfield, A., Eccles, J. S., Schiefele, U., Roeser, R. W., & Davis-Kean, P. E. (2007) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0315 · Cited by 1,874
Ellemers, N., Spears, R., & Doosje, B. (2002) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135228 · Cited by 1,845
Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity: A Reconceptualization of African American Racial Identity
Sellers, R. M., Smith, M. A., Shelton, J. N., Rowley, S. A. J., & Chavous, T. M. (1998) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0201_2 · Cited by 1,748
The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory
Sherman, D. K., & Cohen, G. L. (2006) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(06)38004-5 · Cited by 1,614
Crocker, J., & Wolfe, C. T. (2001) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.3.593 · Cited by 1,614
Harrell, S. P. (2000) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1037/h0087722 · Cited by 1,589
Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., Matsumoto, H., & Norasakkunkit, V. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.6.1245 · Cited by 1,581
An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance
Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C. (2008) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.115.2.336 · Cited by 1,576
Expectations of brilliance underlie gender distributions across academic disciplines
Leslie, S.-J., Cimpian, A., Meyer, M., & Freeland, E. (2015) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1261375 · Cited by 1,516
Longevity increased by positive self-perceptions of aging
Levy, B. R., Slade, M. D., Kunkel, S. R., & Kasl, S. V. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.2.261 · Cited by 1,508
Evolutionary origins of stigmatization: The functions of social exclusion.
Kurzban, R., & Leary, M. R. (2001) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.187 · Cited by 1,424
Measuring Mental Illness Stigma
Link, B. G., Yang, L. H., Phelan, J. C., & Collins, P. Y. (2004) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a007098 · Cited by 1,474
Racial and Ethnic Stratification in Educational Achievement and Attainment
Kao, G., & Thompson, J. S. (2003) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100019 · Cited by 1,386
Ambient belonging: how stereotypical cues impact gender participation in computer science
Cheryan, S., Plaut, V. C., Davies, P. G., & Steele, C. M. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016239 · Cited by 1,372
Self-citationWhy Do People Need Self-Esteem? A Theoretical and Empirical Review.
Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Arndt, J., & Schimel, J. (2004) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.435 · Cited by 1,367
Stereotype Susceptibility: Identity Salience and Shifts in Quantitative Performance
Shih, M., Pittinsky, T. L., & Ambady, N. (1999) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00111 · Cited by 1,366
Subotnik, R. F., Olszewski-Kubilius, P., & Worrell, F. C. (2011) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100611418056 · Cited by 1,269
Why are some STEM fields more gender balanced than others?
Cheryan, S., Ziegler, S. A., Montoya, A. K., & Jiang, L. (2017) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000052 · Cited by 1,259
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Quintana, S. M., Lee, R. M., Cross, W. E., Rivas-Drake, D., Schwartz, S. J., Syed, M., Yip, T., Seaton, E., & Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group (2014) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12196 · Cited by 1,245
Stigma consciousness: The psychological legacy of social stereotypes.
Pinel, E. C. (1999) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.76.1.114 · Cited by 1,243
Critical Race Theory, Racial Microaggressions, and Campus Racial Climate for Latina/o Undergraduates
Yosso, T., Smith, W., Ceja, M., & Solórzano, D. (2009) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/haer.79.4.m6867014157m707l · Cited by 1,221
Learning science in informal environments : people, places, and pursuits
Bell, P., Lewenstein, B. V., Shouse, A. W., & Feder, M. A. (2009) · Cited by 1,220
Social dominance theory and the dynamics of intergroup relations: Taking stock and looking forward
Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., & Levin, S. (2006) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280601055772 · Cited by 1,292
The police officer's dilemma: Using ethnicity to disambiguate potentially threatening individuals.
Correll, J., Park, B., Judd, C. M., & Wittenbrink, B. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1314 · Cited by 1,175
When we talk about American ethnic groups, what do we mean?
Phinney, J. S. (1996) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.51.9.918 · Cited by 1,147
Oswald, A. J., Proto, E., & Sgroi, D. (2015) · Journal of Labor Economics · doi:10.1086/681096 · Cited by 1,215
Alcoff, L. M. (2006) · doi:10.1093/0195137345.001.0001 · Cited by 1,150
Why do women opt out? Sense of belonging and women's representation in mathematics.
Good, C., Rattan, A., & Dweck, C. S. (2012) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0026659 · Cited by 1,113
Converging evidence that stereotype threat reduces working memory capacity.
Schmader, T., & Johns, M. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.440 · Cited by 1,201
The Science of Training and Development in Organizations: What Matters in Practice
Salas, E., Tannenbaum, S. I., Kraiger, K., & Smith-Jentsch, K. A. (2012) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100612436661 · Cited by 1,104
Good, C., Aronson, J., & Inzlicht, M. (2003) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2003.09.002 · Cited by 1,096
Self-citationA teacher like me: Does race, ethnicity, or gender matter?
Dee, T. S. (2005) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/000282805774670446 · Cited by 1,078
Reducing the racial achievement gap: A social-psychological intervention
Cohen, G. L., Garcia, J., Apfel, N., & Master, A. (2006) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1128317 · Cited by 1,073
What the Best College Teachers Do
Bain, K. (2011) · Harvard University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctvjnrvvb · Cited by 1,065
The perception-behavior expressway: automatic effects of social perception on social behavior.
Dijksterhuis, A., & Bargh, J. A. (2001) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(01)80003-4 · Cited by 1,052
Signaling Threat: How Situational Cues Affect Women in Math, Science, and Engineering Settings
Murphy, M. C., Steele, C. M., & Gross, J. J. (2007) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01995.x · Cited by 1,048
Self-citationPrejudice as self-image maintenance: Affirming the self through derogating others.
Fein, S., & Spencer, S. J. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.31 · Cited by 1,047
Identity, Morals, and Taboos: Beliefs as Assets *
Bénabou, R., & Jean Tirole, Z. (2011) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1093/qje/qjr002 · Cited by 1,063
Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment
Pager, D., Bonikowski, B., & Western, B. (2009) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240907400505 · Cited by 1,022
Wong, C. A., Eccles, J. S., & Sameroff, A. (2003) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/1467-6494.7106012 · Cited by 1,004
CURRENT RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Markovsky, B. (1996) · Cited by 994
Schools, Academic Motivation, and Stage-Environment Fit
Eccles, J. S., & Roeser, R. W. (2009) · Handbook of Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1002/9780470479193.adlpsy001013 · Cited by 983
Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments
Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., & Turkheimer, E. (2012) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0026699 · Cited by 1,031
Self-citationWomen's underrepresentation in science: sociocultural and biological considerations
Ceci, S. J., Williams, W. M., & Barnett, S. M. (2009) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0014412 · Cited by 957
When White Men Can't Do Math: Necessary and Sufficient Factors in Stereotype Threat
Aronson, J. M., Lustina, M. J., Good, C., Keough, K. A., Steele, C. M., & Brown, J. L. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1998.1371 · Cited by 952
Self-citationChandler, J., Mueller, P., & Paolacci, G. (2014) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-013-0365-7 · Cited by 950
Jost, J. T., & Kay, A. C. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.498 · Cited by 947
The Contributions and Prospects of Goal Orientation Theory
Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2006) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-006-9012-5 · Cited by 1,016
Peer Effects in Academic Outcomes: Evidence from a Natural Experiment
Zimmerman, D. J. (2003) · The Review of Economics and Statistics · doi:10.1162/003465303762687677 · Cited by 935
Constraints into Preferences: Gender, Status, and Emerging Career Aspirations
Correll, S. J. (2004) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240406900106 · Cited by 934
Gender Differences in Competition: Evidence\\ From a Matrilineal and a Patriarchal Society
Uri Gneezy, B., Leonard, K. L., List, J. A., & List, A. (2009) · Econometrica · doi:10.3982/ecta6690 · Cited by 958
Smith, W. A., Allen, W. R., & Danley, L. L. (2007) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/0002764207307742 · Cited by 925
Field Experiments on Discrimination
Bertrand, M., & Duflo, E. (2016) · Handbook of economic field experiments · doi:10.1016/bs.hefe.2016.08.004 · Cited by 981
The experience of power: Examining the effects of power on approach and inhibition tendencies.
Anderson, C. P., & Berdahl, J. L. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1362 · Cited by 923
Spencer, S. J., Logel, C., & Davies, P. G. (2016) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-073115-103235 · Cited by 920
New trends in gender and mathematics performance: A meta-analysis.
Lindberg, S. M., Hyde, J. S., Petersen, J. L., & Linn, M. C. (2010) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0021276 · Cited by 920
Mind matters: cognitive and physical effects of aging self-stereotypes
Levy, B. R. (2003) · The Journals of Gerontology: Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/58.4.p203 · Cited by 908
Directed Attention as a Common Resource for Executive Functioning and Self-Regulation
Kaplan, S., & Berman, M. G. (2010) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691609356784 · Cited by 905
Molden, D. C., & Dweck, C. S. (2006) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.61.3.192 · Cited by 861
Croizet, J.-C., & Claire, T. (1998) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167298246003 · Cited by 851
Nguyen, H.-H. D., & Ryan, A. M. (2008) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0012702 · Cited by 913
Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States: an Intergenerational Perspective*
Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Jones, M. R., & Porter, S. R. (2020) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1093/qje/qjz042 · Cited by 842
Improving memory in old age through implicit self-stereotyping.
Levy, B. R. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.71.6.1092 · Cited by 840
Inzlicht, M., & Ben-Zeev, T. (2000) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00272 · Cited by 835
(2013) · Cited by 834
Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2002) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012750053-9/50006-1 · Cited by 826
Cooper, L. A., Roter, D. L., Carson, K. A., Beach, M. C., Sabin, J. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Inui, T. S. (2012) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2011.300558 · Cited by 815
Racial microaggressions and the Asian American experience.
Sue, D. W., Bucceri, J., Lin, A. I., Nadal, K. L., & Torino, G. C. (2007) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/1099-9809.13.1.72 · Cited by 812
Schmeichel, B. J., Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.1.33 · Cited by 811
Stigma and prejudice: One animal or two?
Phelan, J. C., Link, B. G., & Dovidio, J. F. (2008) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.03.022 · Cited by 809
Niederle, M., & Lise Vesterlund, C. (2011) · Annual Review of Economics · doi:10.1146/annurev-economics-111809-125122 · Cited by 805
How Experience and Network Ties Affect the Influence of Demographic Minorities on Corporate Boards
Westphal, J. D., & Milton, L. P. (2000) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2667075 · Cited by 787
Purdie-Vaughns, V., Steele, C. M., Davies, P. G., Ditlmann, R., & Crosby, J. R. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.4.615 · Cited by 786
Self-citationThe effects of stereotype activation on behavior: A review of possible mechanisms.
Wheeler, S. C., & Petty, R. E. (2001) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.6.797 · Cited by 820
Chemers, M. M., Zurbriggen, E. L., Syed, M., Goza, B. K., & Bearman, S. (2011) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01710.x · Cited by 757
Genetic essentialism: On the deceptive determinism of DNA.
Dar‐Nimrod, I., & Heine, S. J. (2010) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0021860 · Cited by 785
The Partisan Brain: An Identity-Based Model of Political Belief
Van Bavel, J. J., & Pereira, A. (2018) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2018.01.004 · Cited by 743
Small, M. L. (2009) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195384352.001.0001 · Cited by 752
Color and psychological functioning: The effect of red on performance attainment.
Elliot, A. J., Maier, M., Moller, A. C., Friedman, R., & Meinhardt, J. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.136.1.154 · Cited by 721
Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2014) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.07.035 · Cited by 715
Metadata
- Authors
- Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1995-11
- Volume
- 69
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 797-811
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2161923363
- Semantic Scholar
- 71dbd1d5c13d7661857b0d245f7ce1d3fac7b0c5
- Cited by
- 9,020
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 346 · 2025: 505 · 2024: 406 · 2023: 462 · 2022: 420 · 2021: 486 · 2020: 532 · 2019: 571 · 2018: 463 · 2017: 461 · 2016: 497 · 2015: 471 · 2014: 451 · 2013: 361 · 2012: 383
- FWCI
- 117.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH051977)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Keywords
- stereotype threat, African Americans, standardized test performance, racial stereotypes, test-taking motivation, racial achievement gap
- MeSH terms
- Black or African American, Female, Humans, Intelligence Tests, Male, Stereotyping, Task Performance and Analysis
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
