The DOI matches its Crossref record; 34 of the 34 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.
Abstract
Stereotype threat is being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group. Studies 1 and 2 varied the stereotype vulnerability of Black participants taking a difficult verbal test by varying whether or not their performance was ostensibly diagnostic of ability, and thus, whether or not they were at risk of fulfilling the racial stereotype about their intellectual ability. Reflecting the pressure of this vulnerability, Blacks underperformed in relation to Whites in the ability-diagnostic condition but not in the nondiagnostic condition (with Scholastic Aptitude Tests controlled). Study 3 validated that ability-diagnosticity cognitively activated the racial stereotype in these participants and motivated them not to conform to it, or to be judged by it. Study 4 showed that mere salience of the stereotype could impair Blacks' performance even when the test was not ability diagnostic. The role of stereotype vulnerability in the standardized test performance of ability-stigmatized groups is discussed.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Steele & Aronson (1995) found that”
From In Pursuit of Antiracist Social Justice: Denaturalizing Whiteness in the Academic Library (2015) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Other studies have found that bringing the social identities and/or the stereotypes of students of certain (typically low-status) groups to mind can reduce their ability and desire to learn (Lyons, Simms, Begolli, & Richland, 2018;V. J. Taylor & Walton, 2011), their motivation and persistence on academic tasks (Steele & Aronson, 1995) and, even among high achievers, their commitment to their”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Social identity threat and/or identity incompatibility have been found to reduce the performance of Black and Latino students in U.S. schools and colleges (Chu & Brown, 2017;Gonzales, Blanton, & Williams, 2002;Steele & Aronson, 1995); students and young children of lower social class in the United States (Désert, Préaux, & Jund, 2009;B. Spencer & Castano, 2007), France (Croizet & Claire, 1998),”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“but that the performance of the Black students dropped when the test was described as assessing their intelligence and thus became relevant to the prevalent negative stereotype about their academic ability.”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“They are also thought to explain the finding that describing a test in terms that make evaluation possible-and thus the possibility of confirming the negative stereotype-also reduces performance among low-status groups (Steele & Aronson, 1995).”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Negative stereotypes are key antecedents to threat in theories of social identity threat (especially stereotype threat; Steele & Aronson, 1995)”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“For example, one study conducted in the United States found that White students and Black students performed equally well on an intelligence test (when covariate adjusted) when the test was described as a series of puzzles”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“However, methodological and contextual accounts, such as stereotype threat (e.g., Steele & Aronson, 1995) or differential item functioning (DIF; e.g., Abad et al., 2004), suggest potential avenues through which changes to the administration of CATs could minimise mean score group differences.”
From Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review (2025) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“However, when they removed the relevancy of the stereotype by framing the same task as an exercise of problem solving, rather than an assessment of their intellect, there was no difference in the performance of Black and White students, again controlling for initial differences in skill level.”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“In their influential work, Steele and Aronson (1995) showed that when the stereotype of African American intellectual inferiority was”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Thinking that one is being evaluated through the lens of negative stereotypes can focus a person's attention on the negative aspects of a stereotype and serve to undermine achievement (e.g., Steele & Aronson, 1995).”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
Citations
Cites
(1954) · Cited by 15,935
Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change
Bandura, A. (1978) · Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0146-6402(78)90002-4 · Cited by 10,586
Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components
Devine, P. G. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5 · Cited by 5,673
Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma.
Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.96.4.608 · Cited by 3,426
The effect of emotion on cue utilization and the organization of behavior
Easterbrook, J. A. (1959) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0047707 · Cited by 3,090 · cited 1×
“…may interfere with their performance in a variety of ways: by causing an arousal that reduces the range of cues participants are able to use (e.g., Easterbrook, 1959), or by diverting attention onto task-irrelevant worries (e.g., Sarason, 1972; Wine, 1971), by causing an interfering…”
BackgroundHow Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement
Jensen, A. (1969) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/haer.39.1.l3u15956627424k7 · Cited by 2,907
(1980) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 1,935
Baumeister, R. F. (1984) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.46.3.610 · Cited by 1,665
Anxiety: Current Trends in Theory and Research
Spielberger, C. D. (1972) · Cited by 1,640
The trouble of thinking: Activation and application of stereotypic beliefs.
Gilbert, D. T., & Hixon, J. G. (1991) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.60.4.509 · Cited by 1,366
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 8,101–8,200 of 8,461
Yılmaz, E. (2019) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics
Jonathan, B., & Jackson, J. F. L. (2012) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-61735-934-720251005
Meyer, L. D. (2016) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-68123-416-820251015
Language Education Policies and Latino Youth
López, F. (2016) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-68123-531-820251009
Hey ChatGPT, are we winning yet? A gendered analysis of generative AI usage in hackathons
Górska, A. M., & Ryś, M. (2025) · Gender Technology and Development · doi:10.1080/09718524.2025.2600496
Willingness to Pay for Liquidity: Evidence from an Interest-Free, Tip-Based Cash Advance PlatformPreprint
Agarwal, S. D., Alok, S., Lee, Y. T., & Bhashkar Mazumder, B. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5957496
Wajih, B. (2025) · RAUDEM Revista de Estudios de las Mujeres · doi:10.25115/raudem.v13i1.9995
Richardson, J., & Wamser‐Nanney, R. A. (2025) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605251399679
Grab, M. Ö. (2025) · European Journal of Education · doi:10.1111/ejed.70421
Explicit gender stereotypes and sexually polymorphic cognition by gender identity
Guérin, M., Saulnier, F., Cartier, L., Hirnstein, M., Hétu, S., & Juster, R. (2025) · Biology of Sex Differences · doi:10.1186/s13293-025-00813-5
Skordi, P. G. (2025) · Journal of Equity and Social Justice in Education · doi:10.62889/2025/pgs.1225
Jensen, J. L., Johanson, S., Sorensen, J. B., Woolley, I. A., & Meadows, L. (2025) · BioScience · doi:10.1093/biosci/biaf202
Martin, S., Hamilton, J., Kartel, J., & Schoenherr, H. (2025) · Psi Beta Research Journal - Brief Reports · doi:10.54581/auyr7497
Gerontogogiczne aspekty inkluzji i ekskluzji społecznej. Próba typologii stereotypów w tym obszarze
Mastalski, J. (2026) · Sztuka Leczenia · doi:10.4467/18982026szl.25.013.22439
Students’ Perceptions of Statistics Learning and Genders
Tsami, E. (2026) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.1013050
Titova, L. (2026) · International Journal of Wellbeing · doi:10.5502/ijw.v16i1.5271
Savukinas, C., Taylor, K. D., & Lear, A. A. (2025) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie63693.2025.11328172
Castro, L. M. C., Multani, M. K., Ramírez‐Salgado, A., Goncher, A., Victoria, I., & Taboada, G. (2025) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie63693.2025.11328153
THE USE OF QUOTAS AS A MECHANISM FOR ACHIEVING GENDER EQUALITY
Matchenko, A. V. (2025) · Scientific Notes of Taurida V I Vernadsky University series Public Administration · doi:10.32782/tnu-2663-6468/2025.5/10
Science outcomes and Christianity in the United States: the functions of stereotype threat and trust
Doherty, J. K., & Good, C. (2026) · Journal of Beliefs and Values · doi:10.1080/13617672.2025.2610969
Kang, Y., Sun, X. S., Zhu, G., Wang, X., & Wu, J. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Education · doi:10.1109/te.2025.3649008
Baker, S. M., Betances, S., Philleo, K., & Haney‐Caron, E. (2026) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.70202
Pérez, O. I. G. (2025) · Psicología Educativa · doi:10.22201/fpsic.24486957e.2025.13.166
Washington, D. M., Dinh, T., & Stockdale, M. S. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16020184
Sakpal, S. S., & Kumar, S. (2026) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-2317-6.ch009
Stereotypes and Forms of Injustice. A Non-atomistic Analysis
Martino, V., & Onnis, E. (2026) · Gender, justice and legal feminism · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-63905-0_3
Maïonchi‐Pino, N., Runge, É., Perichon, J., Piollet, A., & Chabanal, D. (2026) · Learning Disabilities Research and Practice · doi:10.1177/09388982251392902
How Are Relationships Relevant to Well-Being?
Hill, C. T., & Aydın, K. B. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-06431-8_4
Zientek, L. R., & Lane, F. (2026) · Journal for STEM Education Research · doi:10.1007/s41979-026-00182-7
Mkilima, T. (2026) · International Journal of Discrimination and the Law · doi:10.1177/13582291261424415
Traité de régulation des émotions
André, C. (2012) · Carrefour des psychothérapies · doi:10.3917/dbu.mikol.2012.01.0527
Heath, M. L., Greer, T. M., & Porter, T. H. (2026) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-025-02820-z
Bettache, K. (2026) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-026-00541-6 · Cited by 1
Does Coeducation Close the STEM Gap? Evidence from a Single-Sex Schooling Transition in ColombiaPreprint
Polanco-Jimenez, J., Witte, K. D., & Bernal, G. L. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6275389
Laboratory experiments in social science
Park, J. (2026) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-26629-4.00261-6
Developing a Culturally Informed Research Agenda
Rosenfeld, B. D., & Nijdam‐Jones, A. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190900991.003.0009
Assessment of Malingering and Defensiveness
Rosenfeld, B. D., & Nijdam‐Jones, A. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190900991.003.0003
Diagnostic and Forensic Interviewing
Rosenfeld, B. D., & Nijdam‐Jones, A. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190900991.003.0002
The Importance of Culture in Forensic Assessment
Rosenfeld, B. D., & Nijdam‐Jones, A. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190900991.003.0001
Cognitive and Neuropsychological Assessment
Rosenfeld, B. D., & Nijdam‐Jones, A. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190900991.003.0005
Assessment of Risk for Violence and Reoffending
Rosenfeld, B. D., & Nijdam‐Jones, A. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190900991.003.0006
Personality Assessment and Multiscale Inventories
Rosenfeld, B. D., & Nijdam‐Jones, A. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190900991.003.0004
Rosenfeld, B. D., & Nijdam‐Jones, A. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190900991.002.0007
Assessment of Children and Families
Rosenfeld, B. D., & Nijdam‐Jones, A. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190900991.003.0007
Rosenfeld, B. D., & Nijdam‐Jones, A. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190900991.002.0004
Rosenfeld, B. D., & Nijdam‐Jones, A. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190900991.002.0005
Rosenfeld, B. D., & Nijdam‐Jones, A. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190900991.002.0006
Evaluations for Asylum and International Human Rights Violations
Rosenfeld, B. D., & Nijdam‐Jones, A. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190900991.003.0008
Cultural and Linguistic Considerations in Forensic Mental Health Assessment
Rosenfeld, B. D., & Nijdam‐Jones, A. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780190900991.001.0001
The Buffer Effect of Social Identity on Psychological Stress in Different Competition Conditions
Li, X., Shi, K., & Zhang, H. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16030352
Forbes, C. E., Amey, R. C., & Ökten, I. O. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-27999-3
Response to: Regarding “Where are the Black men in osteopathic medical schools?”
Megafu, M. N. (2026) · Journal of Osteopathic Medicine · doi:10.1515/jom-2026-0036
Considerations for Counselors Working With Black Males in Career Development
Owens, D. L., Middleton, T. J., & Carter, D. (2026) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s2051-231720260000010002
Changing the Narrative: Proceedings of a Summit on Advancing Precision in Health Assessment
Arredondo, B. C., Baugh, A. D., Iverson, G. L., Christopher, G. C., Visweswaran, S., Gerberding, J. L., Menetski, J. P., Lopez-Martinez, E. A., Perry, W., Persaud, N., et al. (2026) · Health Equity · doi:10.1177/24731242261419949
Alshehri, A. F., Alshammari, A., & Alhazmi, A. Y. (2026) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-026-08984-4
Zou, J., Zhang, Y., & Zhou, H. (2026) · Gender Issues · doi:10.1007/s12147-026-09408-9
Away from Parents, Away from Hope: Social Identity and Aspirations Failure of Left-Behind ChildrenPreprint
Ding, S., & Jiang, S. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6430168
Lelaurain, S., Mahé, O., Calvez, C., Dalnoky, S., & Fonte, D. (2026) · Pratiques Psychologiques · doi:10.1016/j.prps.2026.01.001
A inclusão de meninas na Ciência no município de Buriticupu (MA), a cidade das voçorocas
Bertoldo, K. L. T., & Imbernon, R. A. L. (2026) · Terrae Didatica · doi:10.20396/td.v22i00.8681484
Moreau, D. (2026) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/25152459261451143
Breaking bias: pathways to reducing discrimination
Bartoš, V. (2026) · Edward Elgar Publishing eBooks · doi:10.4337/9781035307272.00021
Lagos, F., & Blazar, D. (2026) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x261434481
Höflich, S. (2026) · schule verantworten | führungskultur_innovation_autonomie · doi:10.53349/schuleverantworten.2026.i1.a654
Jackson, B. D., Robinson, B. H., Madison, M. J., & Andrews, T. C. (2026) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.25-09-0199
Er-Rafiy, A. (2010) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/aff01e28zda89z41d9za089z353a14a2dee9
Υποστηρικτικά και ασφαλή σχολεία: Πολυεπίπεδη ανάλυση δεδομένων της διεθνούς έρευνας PISA 2022
Αϊβαλιώτης, Σ., & Εμβαλωτής, Α. (2025) · Θέματα Επιστημών Αγωγής · doi:10.12681/thea.43047
Incivility Toward Native Americans in Organizations
Stone, D. L., Hirshman, A., & Lukaszewski, K. M. (2025) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-80592-577-420261005
Pravossoudovitch, K. (2016) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/012deba9zd06ez452dz8668z3a3ff9a31f6e
Claypool, D. M., Adeyemo, F., & Singer, J. N. (2026) · Quest · doi:10.1080/00336297.2026.2651940
Identité de genre et auto-objectivation : une comparaison entre bodybuilders-es et non-pratiquants
Cholley-Gomez, M. (2016) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/120bb3a9zb86bz4b77zbcf1ze9934ce3b34d
Three essays in economics of education : an econometric approach
Benzidia, M. (2017) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/0e1a663azf6f4z42dbza769z54aeb838da86
A strategy perspective on age-based stereotype threat : studies in arithmetic
Nicolas, P. (2019) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/13483821z56e4z4810z90f8z3fe8a720bc8f
Metadata
- Authors
- Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1995-11
- Volume
- 69
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 797-811
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2161923363
- Semantic Scholar
- 71dbd1d5c13d7661857b0d245f7ce1d3fac7b0c5
- Cited by
- 9,020
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 346 · 2025: 505 · 2024: 406 · 2023: 462 · 2022: 420 · 2021: 486 · 2020: 532 · 2019: 571 · 2018: 463 · 2017: 461 · 2016: 497 · 2015: 471 · 2014: 451 · 2013: 361 · 2012: 383
- FWCI
- 117.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH051977)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Keywords
- stereotype threat, African Americans, standardized test performance, racial stereotypes, test-taking motivation, racial achievement gap
- MeSH terms
- Black or African American, Female, Humans, Intelligence Tests, Male, Stereotyping, Task Performance and Analysis
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
