The DOI matches its Crossref record; 47 of the 47 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Groups perform better than the best individuals on letters-to-numbers problems: Effects of group size.
Abstract
Individuals and groups of 2, 3, 4, or 5 people solved 2 letters-to-numbers problems that required participants, on each trial, to identify the coding of 10 letters to 10 numbers by proposing an equation in letters, receiving the answer in letters, proposing a hypothesis, and receiving feedback on the correctness of the hypothesis. Groups of 3, 4, and 5 people proposed more complex equations and had fewer trials to solution than the best of an equivalent number of individuals. Groups of 3, 4, and 5 people had fewer trials to solution than 2-person groups but did not differ from each other. These results suggest that 3-person groups are necessary and sufficient to perform better than the best individuals on highly intellective problems.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“These findings are consistent with previous research on group versus individual learning which showed that group learning is superior to individual learning for relatively complex problem-solving tasks (Laughlin et al. 2002;Laughlin et al. 2006) and that individual learning is superior to group learning for relatively simple recall tasks (e.g., Andersson and Rönnberg 1995;Meudell et al. 1992;Weld”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as Laughlin et al. 2006
Citations
Cites
Olson, M. (1965) · doi:10.4159/9780674041660 · Cited by 14,191
The Logic of Collective Action.
Golembiewski, R. T., & Olson, M. (1966) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2091298 · Cited by 11,371
DeLamater, J., & Ward, A. (2013) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6772-0 · Cited by 7,590
Axten, N., Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1973) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2063712 · Cited by 6,886
Newell, A. (1972) · Cited by 6,222
Teams in Organizations: From Input-Process-Output Models to IMOI Models
Ilgen, D. R., Hollenbeck, J. R., Johnson, M., & Jundt, D. (2005) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070250 · Cited by 2,273
A HANDBOOK OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
&NA; (1935) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-193512000-00062 · Cited by 2,269
Group process and productivity
Steiner, I. D. (1972) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,106
Confirmation, disconfirmation, and information in hypothesis testing
Klayman, J., & Ha, Y.-W. (1987) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.94.2.211 · Cited by 2,094
Productivity loss in brainstorming groups: Toward the solution of a riddle.
Diehl, M., & Stroebe, W. (1987) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.53.3.497 · Cited by 1,925
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- Hastie, 1986, Review essay: Experimental evidence on group accuracy., 129
- Levine, 1998, Small groups., Vol. 2, 415
- Terman, 1956, Manual for Concept Mastery Test.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 301–390 of 390
Mahapatra, R., & Mangalaraj, G. (2006) · Cited by 1
Suárez, O. M., Santos, J., Crone, W. C., & Zenner, G. M. (2006) · Cited by 1
When confidence and competence collide: Effects on online decision-making discussionsPreprint
Fu, L., Lee, L., & Danescu-Niculescu-Mizil, C. (2017) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1702.07717 · Cited by 1
“The promise of group over individual deliberation lies in the intuitive notion that the more people we bring together, the more ideas for solving a problem will be generated, and the more ideas generated, the more likely one of them will provide an excellent solution [19, 26, 39].”
BackgroundRickard, J. K. (2020) · InSPIRe@Redlands (University of Redlands) · doi:10.26716/redlands/doctor/2020.9 · Cited by 1
Biocontrol for papaya mealybug: lessons learnt from Kenya
(2023) · doi:10.1079/cabicomm-62-8176 · Cited by 1
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.003.0014 · Cited by 1
Honesty of Groups: Effects of Size and Gender CompositionPreprint
Muehlheusser, G., Promann, T., Roider, A., & Wallmeier, N. (2024) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4811769 · Cited by 2
Belief Diffusion in Social NetworksPreprint
Girard, P., Pavlov, V., & Wilson, M. C. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2617554 · Cited by 1
“Closer to our setup, Lorenz et al. (2011) describe an experiment (on a complete network) involving observational learning, in which social aggregation of information is relatively poor, and give three main reasons for this. Two of these are related to social influence — a reduction in diversity as in Lazer & Friedman…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe Effect of Method for Team Goal-setting on Team Performance Quantity and Trend
Jung, Z., & Oah, S. Z. (2010) · Journal of the Korea Safety Management and Science
A post-classical economics approach to ecosystem management
Hearnshaw, E. J. S. (2009) · Lincoln University Research Archive (Lincoln University)
Improved targeting through collaborative decision-making and brain computer interfaces
Stoica, A., Barrero, D. F., & McDonald-Maier, K. D. (2013) · International Conference on Collaboration Technologies and Systems (CTS) · doi:10.1109/cts.2013.6567266
A New Approach for Complex Problem Solving: The Independent Systems Dynamics Elicitation Method
Holmberg, E. B. (2010) · DukeSpace (Duke University)
Problemlösning i små grupper: tilldelade rollers betydelse för prestation och tillfredsställelse
Luvö, T. (2015) · Gothenburg University Publications Electronic Archive (Gothenburg University)
Tziner, A. E., & Chernyak‐Hai, L. (2012)
Sommer, S. C., Bendoly, E., & Kavadias, S. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2700210
Biard, A. (2015) · European Journal of Risk Regulation · doi:10.1017/s1867299x00005146
Hayashi, Y., & Ogawa, H. (2012) · Journal of Japan Society for Fuzzy Theory and Intelligent Informatics · doi:10.3156/jsoft.24.848
Motivated To Get It Right: Closing the Gap Between Group and Individual Decision QualityPreprint
Chou, E. Y., & Phillips, K. W. (2009) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1484786
Belief di↵usion in social networks
Girard, P., Pavlov, V., & Wilson, M. C. (2015)
Practice Makes Perfect: The Impact of Longitudinal Quizzing on Computer Simulation Group Performance
Kilburn, B., & Kilburn, A. J. (2014) · Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning
Arguments for an argumentative theory
Mercier, H., & Sperber, D. (2011)
Ambreen, S. (2017) · White Rose eTheses Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York)
Group decision-making: Factors that affect group effectiveness
Osmani, J. (2016) · Academic journal of business, administration, law and social sciences
Social work professional organization development: history, purpose, and possibilities
Hall, C. (2018) · Social Work Experience and Methods · doi:10.7220/2029-5820.21.1.1
Should the Financial Decisions Be Made As Group Decisions?
Motylska-Kuźma, A. (2018) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-58464-4_10
The Creative Power of Collaborative Pairs in Divergent Idea-Generation Task
Risa, M., Suzuki, N., Sakata, M., & Yamamoto, M. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-22660-2_23
Disagreement and Change of View
Lougheed, K. (2019) · Studies in applied philosophy, epistemology and rational ethics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-34503-7_6
Prozesse in Kleingruppen – Intragruppenprozesse
Werth, L., Seibt, B., & Mayer, J. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-53899-9_3
Dyadic judgments based on conflicting samples: The failure to ignore invalid input
Fiedler, K., Krüger, T., Koch, A. S., & Kutzner, F. (2020) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.2173
What to tell? Wise communication and wise crowd
Li, C., & Liu, N. (2020) · Theory and Decision · doi:10.1007/s11238-020-09784-y
The role of group dynamics in creating a developing educational environment of a university
Александровна, П. И., Frolova, N. H., & Chicherina, Y. V. (2021) · SHS Web of Conferences · doi:10.1051/shsconf/202112204002
Brown, P. R., & Pehrson, D. S. (2019) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118719244.ch5
Are sake brewers and marketers sending the wrong message to consumers?
Smith, R. P., Ma, F., McKercher, B., & Baldwin, W. (2022) · British Food Journal · doi:10.1108/bfj-06-2021-0643
Selective social belief revision in preschoolers
Miosga, N. (2020) · doi:10.53846/goediss-7885
Performance similarities predict collective benefits in dyadic and triadic joint visual searchPreprint
Wahn, B., Czeszumski, A., & Peter König, B. (2017) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/pgmc4 · Cited by 5
Yonah, M., & Kessler, Y. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/z8nr2
Group-to-Individual Problem-Solving Transfer
Laughlin, P. R. (2011) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.23943/princeton/9780691147918.003.0007
Self-citationLa cooperación en el rastreo visual de objetos: estudio piloto
Bravo-Chávez, R. I., Ferrari-Díaz, M., Silva‐Pereyra, J., & Fernández, T. (2023) · PSICUMEX · doi:10.36793/psicumex.v13i1.454
Work-from-Home and Employee and Team Performance: Evidence from the Sell-Side Analysts IndustryPreprint
Naderi, H. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4565257
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.003.0006
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.003.0021
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.003.0020 · Cited by 2
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.002.0003
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.003.0009 · Cited by 1
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.003.0016 · Cited by 1
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.003.0017 · Cited by 1
Third Edition Literature Review Methodology
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.005.0001
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.002.0005
Journals That Publish Creativity Research
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.005.0005
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.003.0012
Influential Creativity Researchers, 1800–1990
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.005.0008
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.003.0019
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.003.0018
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.003.0008
A Timeline of Creativity Research
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.005.0002
Influential Books in Creativity Research
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.005.0006
Colleges and Universities with a Degree or Certificate in Creativity
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.005.0007
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.003.0013
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.005.0003
Sawyer, R. K., & Henriksen, D. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197747537.003.0007
Borahima, D. Q. P. M., & Retnowati, E. (2023) · Jurnal Pengembangan Pembelajaran Matematika · doi:10.14421/jppm.2023.52.104-118 · Cited by 3
“Untuk masalah yang digunakan adalah problem solving, siswa dalam mencari solusi dengan menghubungkan informasi satu dengan lainnya strategi kolaboratif lebih mengguguli daripada individu (Laughlin et al., 2006).”
BackgroundLomelí, K., Perez, G. A., Taube, J., & Lomelí, R. S. (2024) · Journal of Latinos and Education · doi:10.1080/15348431.2024.2333898
The Group Intertemporal Decision-Making Process
Sun, H.-Y., Xiao, Y.-T., & Yang, S. (2024) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs14090815
“Groups tend to have more problem-solving resources than individuals, and the diversity of group resources can compensate for a lack of individual knowledge and skills [4,5].”
BackgroundDeale, C. S., & Lee, S. H. (2024) · Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education · doi:10.1080/10963758.2024.2433066
“Group size seems to make a difference, too, with groups of three, four, or five suggested (Laughlin et al., 2006).”
Li, C., Yang, Y., & Chen, X. (2025) · Symmetry · doi:10.3390/sym17020282
Uden, L., & Sulaiman, F. B. (2025) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-2267-4.ch005
Leveraging Metacognitive Data Visualization in Business Problem-Solving: An Empirical Study
Yin, X. (2025) · International Conference on Cloud Computing and Big Data Analytics (ICCCBDA) · doi:10.1109/icccbda64898.2025.11030433
“…poorly structured learning tasks could cause higher cognitive loads, they are more suitable for collaborative learning compared to simple knowledge memory tasks [12]; The correlation among different learning tasks and purposeful guidance are essential to optimize learners cognitive loads [13].”
Szyca, M., Smyk, E., & Dižo, J. (2025) · Polish Journal of Technical Issue · doi:10.37660/pjti.2025.25.1.4
Hui, Z., Zhu, L., Zhang, A., & Liu, D. (2025) · Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services · doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2025.104454
Improving decision capabilities through brain–computer interfaces
Poli, R., & Cinel, C. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-24824-5.00008-9
BOARD # 55: Senior capstone case study: measuring outcomes with enhanced industry mentoring
Walsh, K. Q., Horvath, E., Alleman, J., & Smith, B. (2025) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--55869
Portfolio Overlap and Mutual Fund PerformancePreprint
Ciciretti, R., Dalò, A., & Puopolo, G. W. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5400222
Shen, Y., Wang, X., Lv, M., Schwieter, J. W., & Liu, H. (2025) · Journal of Neurolinguistics · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroling.2025.101297
Enelamah, N. V., Frounfelker, R. L., Montgomery, A., Sharifi, F., Arwal, S. H., Dilts, C., & Betancourt, T. S. (2025) · SSM - Mental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100550
Ingram, F., & Herath, D. B. (2025) · Springer proceedings in complexity · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-91782-0_15
Liu, Y., & Garvi, M. (2025) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2025.101301
Tekïn, M., Uysal, İ., Toraman, Ç., Akman, C., Aytuğ Koşan, A. M., & POSTACI, E. S. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26570026
Peregrino, J., & Legare, C. H. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6105114
A multibrain advantage for cooperative human behaviourPreprint
Moerel, D., Grootswagers, T., Quek, G. L., & Varlet, M. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.03.02.708977
“…and modelling literatures provides compelling support for its potential (Bahrami et al., 2010; Bonner et al., 2007; A. A. Brennan & Enns, 2015; Herzog & Hertwig, 2009; Hong & Page, 2004; Kameda et al., 2022; Laughlin et al., 2006; Sniezek & Henry, 1990; Stasser & Abele, 2020; Woolley et al., 2010).”
A collective-intelligence-driven parametric model for measuring and improving group performance
Liu, F., Zhou, D.-H., & Wei, X. (2026) · Information Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.ins.2026.123485
Creusen, M., & Creusen, U. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-51775-5_5
Creusen, M., & Creusen, U. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-51775-5_1
Wang, X., Qiu, Y., Sun, Z., Xu, M., Liu, P., & Guo, L. (2026) · Knowledge and Information Systems · doi:10.1007/s10115-026-02816-z
Decisive design: how spatial arrangements shape group decision-making
Klöckner, H. W., McTeague, C. P., Liu, S., Dreyer, S., & Thoring, K. (2026) · Proceedings of the Design Society · doi:10.1017/pds.2026.10397
“Although prior research on the NASA Task does not provide formal item-difficulty parameters, several studies examine item-by-item disagreement, variance, and misranking patterns (Hall & Watson, 1970; Laughlin et al., 2006).”
Culture and the Intensive Care Unit Team
Fuchita, M., McPeake, J., & Mikkelsen, M. E. (2026) · Critical Care Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.ccc.2026.07.003
How Artificial Intelligence Shapes Human Narratives
Priniski, J. H. (2026) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x261493082
Metadata
- Authors
- Laughlin, P. R., Hatch, E. C., Silver, J. S., & Boh, L.
- Affiliations
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 2006
- Volume
- 90
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 644-651
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2125970110
- Cited by
- 390
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 23 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 13.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Team Dynamics and Performance
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Keywords
- group problem solving, group size, hypothesis testing, feedback, group versus individual performance
- MeSH terms
- Analysis of Variance, Cooperative Behavior, Group Processes, Humans, Illinois, Problem Solving
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
