The DOI matches its Crossref record; 242 of the 242 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Intelligence, personality, and interests: Evidence for overlapping traits
Abstract
The authors review the development of the modern paradigm for intelligence assessment and application and consider the differentiation between intelligence-as-maximal performance and intelligence-as-typical performance. They review theories of intelligence, personality, and interest as a means to establish potential overlap. Consideration of intelligence-as-typical performance provides a basis for evaluation of intelligence-personality and intelligence-interest relations. Evaluation of relations among personality constructs, vocational interests, and intellectual abilities provides evidence for communality across the domains of personality of J. L. Holland's (1959) model of vocational interests. The authors provide an extensive meta-analysis of personality-intellectual ability correlations, and a review of interest-intellectual ability associations. They identify 4 trait complexes: social, clerical/conventional, science/math, and intellectual/cultural.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Openness-related traits are widely acknowledged correlates of cognitive abilities (17).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Second, investment of intelligence into acquired knowledge (i.e., invested abilities) was found to require a hungry mind (i.e., openness traits) and interest in the domain of knowledge to be acquired (17, 19).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“A few meta-analyses have summarized available research (e.g., refs. 17–21).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Although considerable research has examined the correlates and consequences of cognitive abilities and personality traits independently, much less is known about their connections.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“This investment process underpins the emergence of knowledge acquisition trait complexes (17) and intellectual engagement (19).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Thus, invested abilities displayed larger relations with openness traits, especially its intellect, non traditional,* need for cognition, and openness to ideas facets.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“First, cognitive abilities were moderately associated with a variety of openness-related traits (17, 19) but appeared to have weak relations with other personality characteristics (18).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“In contrast to previous meta-analyses that reported mostly null effects for extraversion–abilities relations (17, 18), our larger dataset and more nuanced construct structures revealed previously unacknowledged relations.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Overall, these intellect-related traits’ relations were in line with previous meta-analytic estimates (17, 19) (mean ρ^ = .21, mean 95% CI [.13, .29])”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Openness to Experience, however, is the only Big Five factor with moderate associations with general intelligence ( 0.33 r in a meta-analysis by Ackerman and Heggestad [1997])”
From Personality Psychology and Economics (2011) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad [1997]
In the citing paper
“A meta-analysis conducted by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) found generally positive relationships with extraversion across ten intelligence traits.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Results from a meta-analysis between personality and intelligence conducted by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997), however, found relatively consistent modest positive relations between extraversion and intelligence.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Their findings, shown in Table 2, indicate a positive relationship of the estimated effect sizes for extraversion across the ability categories ranging from 0.05 to 0.14 (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“The pervasive decrease in the estimated effect sizes in the current study compared to the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) results provides initial support for this hypothesis.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Consistent with past research (Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997; Zeidner and Matthews, 2000; Zeidner, 1995), all of the estimated effect sizes were close to zero.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“A closer comparison with the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) results reveals that most of the estimated effect sizes from the current study are slightly smaller (compare Table 2 and Table 9).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Exclusion criteria were designed to retain studies useful in the present meta-analysis and consistent with the studies used in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis to avoid a selection confound.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“For example, about 27 additional studies (an average increase of 60%) were located beyond those located in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis for the three most studied ability-personality combinations (extraversion crossed with crystallized intelligence, general intelligence, and fluid intelligence).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Similar to the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis, the extraversion-intelligence relationship was slightly positive, and different patterns of relationships were found for social closeness and social potency.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Almost universally, the estimated effects sizes in the current study were less than the estimated effect sizes in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis, and almost universally, the correlations of the extraversion-intelligence association and date of publication for the ability-personality categories were negative.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Also, vocational interests are related to cognitive abilities (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997), self-efficacy beliefs (Rottinghaus et al., 2003), values and goals (Stoll et al., 2020).”
From The German O*NET Interest Profiler Short Form (2023) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“All tests of intelligence or cognitive aptitude are optimal performance assessments, whereas measures of thinking dispositions are often assessed under typical performance conditions (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997;Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein, & Jarvis, 1996;Norris & Ennis, 1989;Perkins, 1995;Sternberg, 2003;Zeidner & Matthews, 2000).”
From The Cognitive Reflection Test as a predictor of performance on heuristics-and-biases tasks (2011) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Moreover, because Openness is positively correlated with a broad range of cognitive abilities, including vocabulary (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Gignac, Stough, & Loukomitis, 2004), it is reasonable to suppose that highly Open individuals use “big words” more often, effectively resulting in strong positive correlations for many individual words (but conversely, producing negative correlations for”
From Personality in 100,000 Words: A large-scale analysis of personality and word use among bloggers (2010) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
Citations
Cites
Items 201–242 of 242
Relationship of Intelligence and the Nine Scales of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
Wexner, L. B. (1954) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.1954.9714221 · Cited by 10
Anxiety and the Intellectual Performance of High School Students1,2
Walter, D., Denzler, L., & Sarason, I. G. (1964) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1964.tb05230.x · Cited by 9
Relation of personality dimensions to social and intellectual factors in children
Gellenne, M. K., & Kozéki, B. (1983) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(83)90145-9 · Cited by 9
Anxiety, aptitude, attitude, and achievement
Sassenrath, J. M. (1967) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/1520-6807(196710)4:4 · Cited by 9
The Influence on Test Anxiety Scores of Stressful Versus Neutral Conditions of Test Administration
Smith, C. P. (1965) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/001316446502500114 · Cited by 8
The status of university intelligence tests in 1923-1924.
Toops, H. A. (1926) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0067358 · Cited by 8
Ayers, J. B., Bashaw, W. L., & Wash, J. A. (1969) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/001316446902900227 · Cited by 8
A nontransformational test of intellectual competence.
Gough, H. G., & Weiss, D. S. (1981) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-9010.66.1.102 · Cited by 8
Relationships of Selected Personal and Social Variables in Conforming Judgment
Long, H. B. (1970) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.1970.9922439 · Cited by 8
Human genetic markers associated with variation in intellectual abilities and personality
Gentry, T. A., Polzine, K. M., & Wakefield, J. A. (1985) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(85)90035-2 · Cited by 8
Relationship of experimentally aroused achievement motivation to academic achievement anxiety.
Herron, E. W. (1964) · Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0044038 · Cited by 8
Comparison of Roe's and Holland's occupational classifications: Diverse ways of knowing.
Zytowski, D. G. (1986) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.33.4.479 · Cited by 7
The Effect of Test Content and Context on the Anxiety-Intelligence Relationship
Milgram, R. M., & Milgram, N. A. (1977) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.1977.10533238 · Cited by 7
Mental Tests in the American Army
Brown, W. (1921) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.s1-2.5.98 · Cited by 7
Neurotic Nucleus and Test Anxiety
de Man, A. F., Hall, V., & Stout, D. (1991) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.1991.10543329 · Cited by 7
On the New Plan of Admitting Students at Columbia University
Thorndike, E. L. (1921) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.1921.10879184 · Cited by 7
Teacher Knowledge of Standardized Test Information and its Effect on Pupil I. Q. and Achievement
Sorotzkin, F., Fleming, E. S., & Anttonen, R. G. (1974) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.1974.10806308 · Cited by 6
COGNITIVE COMPLEXITY NEUROTICISM AND RESEARCH ABILITY
Robertson, I. T., & Molloy, K. (1982) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1982.tb02510.x · Cited by 6
Extraversion, Intelligence, and Ability to Draw a Person
Eysenck, S. B. G., Russell, T., & Eysenck, H. J. (1970) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1970.30.3.925 · Cited by 6
Vocational Interests and Intelligence in Gifted Adolescents
Welsh, G. S. (1971) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/001316447103100113 · Cited by 6
Sorenson, H. (1933) · University of Minnesota Press eBooks · doi:10.5749/j.cttttf7t · Cited by 6
Phillips, W. S., & Osborne, R. T. (1949) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/001316444900900309 · Cited by 5
The Effect of Instructions, Anxiety, and Locus of Control on Intelligence Test Scores
Bauer, D. H. (1975) · Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance · doi:10.1080/00256307.1975.12022661 · Cited by 5
ANTHONY, W. S. (1983) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1983.tb02571.x · Cited by 5
Need for Achievement and Performance on Measures of Behavioral Fluency
Allen, J. B., Blanton, P. D., Johnson-Greene, D. E., et al. (1992) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1992.71.2.471 · Cited by 5
Binet, A. (1905) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 5
Predicting Achievement and the Theory of Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
Eno, L. (1978) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1978.43.3.847 · Cited by 4
A Factor Analysis of Epps Scales, Ability, and Achievement Measures
Dixon, P. W., Fukuda, N. K., & Berens, A. E. (1971) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.1971.11011281 · Cited by 4
A FACTOR ANALYTICAL STUDY OF INTELLECTUAL AND NON-INTELLECTUAL CHARACTERISTICS
Hundal, P. S., & Singh, M. (1971) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr0604_9 · Cited by 4
O'Reilly, R. P., & WlGHTMAN, L. E. (1971) · Journal of Educational Measurement · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.1971.tb00913.x · Cited by 4
Extraversion-Introversion and Spatial Intelligence
Dunn, A., & Eliot, J. F. (1993) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1993.77.1.19 · Cited by 3
Intercorrelations of Numerosity Recognition, IQ, and Anxiety in College Students
Posey, T. B., & Runyon, J. C. (1974) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1974.38.3c.1054 · Cited by 3
Adult Abilities: A Study of University Extension Students
Sorenson, H. (1933) · Project Muse (Johns Hopkins University) · Cited by 3
Reliability and validity of Smith's quick measure of achievement motivation scale
Opolot, J. A. (1977) · British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.1977.tb00247.x · Cited by 2
Lessing, E. E., & Barbera, L. (1973) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/001316447303300437 · Cited by 2
Motivational Correlates of Academic Performance
Brown, M. (1974) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1974.34.3.746 · Cited by 2
Jj, G., & Kirkendall, D. R. (1974) · PubMed · Cited by 2
Sex differences in personality and reading ability.
Neal, C. M. (1968) · The Journal of Reading · Cited by 2
Role of Model's Affect in Test Anxiety
Olson, D. R., & Schlottmann, R. S. (1980) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1980.47.3.956 · Cited by 1
GCE performance of FE and sixth‐form college students
Clarke, M. (1985) · Educational Research · doi:10.1080/0013188850270302 · Cited by 1
Some personality and aptitude characteristics of air traffic control specialist trainees.
Nye, L. G., & Collins, W. E. (1993) · PubMed · Cited by 1
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Grit: perseverance and passion for long-term goals
Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087 · Cited by 6,911
Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence
Schutte, N. S., Malouff, J. M., Hall, L. E., Haggerty, D. J., Cooper, J. T., Golden, C. J., & Dornheim, L. (1998) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(98)00001-4 · Cited by 3,856
“Most such traitlike characteristics are related to one of the big five personality dimensions (e.g. Digman, 1990; Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997), which are as follows: neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience (this last dimension is sometimes labeled intellect).”
BackgroundRichardson, M., Abraham, C., & Bond, R. (2012) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0026838 · Cited by 3,646
“For example, Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) provided an informative analysis of relationships between intelligence, personality, and interests; Poropat (2009) demonstrated that academic performance is associated with five-factor personality traits.”
BackgroundA meta-analysis of the five-factor model of personality and academic performance.
Poropat, A. E. (2009) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0014996 · Cited by 2,729
“As observed by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997), Openness had the highest correlation with intelligence but this did not translate into Openness having the highest correlation with academic performance.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPersonality Development: Stability and Change
Caspi, A., Roberts, B. W., & Shiner, R. L. (2005) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141913 · Cited by 2,699
“People who are more extraverted prefer jobs that are described as social or enterprising, such as teaching or business management (Ackerman & Heggestad 1997).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1997-03
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 219-245
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2093371949
- Semantic Scholar
- de9d16d02fc6cd75679a94f29181ba274bc8e3c5
- Cited by
- 1,829
- References
- 241
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 66 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 118 · 2019: 110 · 2018: 79 · 2017: 83 · 2016: 92 · 2015: 79 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 96 · 2012: 93
- FWCI
- 27.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- intelligence, personality, career interest, social characteristics
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Aspirations, Psychological, Career Choice, Child, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Motivation, Personality, Personality Development
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review