Personality Psychology and Economics

These traits are equally predictive of criminal activity.

“These traits in turn are equally predictive of criminal activity.”

• cites Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] sourceDisputed

  Section 7 says both cognitive and noncognitive abilities matter for crime-related outcomes, but they are not equally predictive. It identifies noncognitive ability as the dominant factor for males’ incarceration and reports a much steeper gradient for noncognitive ability in illegal activities; the passages provide no page number. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The identification problem deepens when costs are allowed to be psychic costs and one attempts to separate productivity traits from preference traits.

“The identification problem deepens when we allow the costs to be psychic costs as in Heckman and Sedlacek [1985], Cunha, Heckman and Navarro [2005], or Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006], and attempt to separate out productivity traits from preference traits.”

• cites Heckman and Sedlacek [1985] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Cunha, Heckman and Navarro [2005]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] sourcePartly supported

  Section 9 (Conclusion; page unavailable) discusses psychic costs of schooling and says the authors have not linked their noncognitive measures to conventional preference measures. Section 5 (Interpreting our Model as an Approximation to an Explicit Economic Model; page unavailable) calls the relationship between those measures, preference parameters, and human-capital productivity an open question. These passages support the difficulty of separating preference and productivity traits, but do not say that allowing psychic costs deepens the identification problem. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] show how persons with different endowments of personality and intelligence sort into different occupations and levels of schooling.

“Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] show how persons with different endowments of personality and intelligence sort into different occupations and levels of schooling.”

• cites Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] sourceSupported

Situations may change over time as a function of past actions, past situations, investment, information, and the like.

“As emphasized by Mischel and Shoda [1995] and Roberts and Jackson [2008], situations may change over time as a function of past actions, past situations, investment, information, and the like.”

• cites Mischel and Shoda [1995] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Roberts and Jackson [2008] sourceCould not verify

  The Sociogenomic Biology section discusses how environments affect thoughts, feelings, behavior, and personality over time, but does not say that situations change because of past actions, past situations, investment, or information. Searches for those terms and for people changing their environments did not locate a passage establishing the attributed claim; page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.69)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] and Urzua [2008] demonstrate the importance of correcting for reverse causality arising from schooling affecting traits and traits affecting schooling in interpreting the effects of personality tests on socioeconomic outcomes.

“Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] and Urzua [2008] demonstrate the importance of correcting for reverse causality arising from schooling affecting traits and traits affecting schooling in interpreting the effects of personality tests on a variety of socioeconomic outcomes.”

• cites Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] sourceSupported
• cites Urzua [2008] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] allow lifetime experiences and investments to determine, in part, the coefficients of the factor model and to affect the factor itself.

“Generalizing the analysis of Hansen, Heckman and Mullen [2004], Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] allow for lifetime experiences and investments to determine, in part, the coefficients of the factor model and to affect the factor itself.”

• cites Hansen, Heckman and Mullen [2004] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] sourcePartly supported

  Section 3 says that schooling at the time of testing affects the factor loadings in test-score equations, supporting the claim about model coefficients. But the same section says the latent factors are fixed by the time individuals make schooling and behavior choices. The paper attributes factors that evolve with investments to a more general model by Cunha and Heckman, not to its own model. No page numbers were supplied in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The finding that descriptions of behavior as measured by tests, self-reports, and observer reports cluster reliably into five groups has not so far been satisfactorily explained by any scientifically grounded theory.

“While research is under way on determining the neural substrates of the Big Five (see Canli [2006] and DeYoung, Hirsh, Shane et al. [2010]), the finding that descriptions of behavior as measured by tests, self-reports, and reports of observers cluster reliably into five groups has not so far been satisfactorily explained by any scientifically grounded theory.”

• cites Canli [2006]Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites DeYoung, Hirsh, Shane et al. [2010] sourceSupported

Hansen, Heckman and Mullen [2004] and Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] show that schooling and other acquired traits substantially causally affect measured cognitive and personality test scores.

“Hansen, Heckman and Mullen [2004], and Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] show how schooling and other acquired traits substantially causally affect measured cognitive and personality test scores.”

• cites Hansen, Heckman and Mullen [2004] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] sourcePartly supported

  Section 7 (page unavailable) reports that schooling raises measured cognitive test scores and scores on the Rotter and Rosenberg noncognitive scales; it also rejects the hypothesis that schooling has no effect on either set of measures. The cited paper therefore supports the schooling portion of the claim, but the passages do not establish that other acquired traits substantially cause changes in those scores. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The endowment effect disappears when agents have market experience.

“List [2003] has shown that this effect disappears when agents have market experience.”

• cites List [2003] sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction reports that the endowment effect becomes negligible among subjects with intense trading experience, supporting the claim for highly experienced agents. But the trading results (p. 65) say a significant endowment effect remained after four rounds of experience, so the paper does not show that it disappears whenever agents have market experience. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] report the effects of percentile changes in cognitive and personality measures on a variety of outcomes over the full range of estimated relationships, relaxing traditional normality or linearity assumptions and not relying directly on measures of variance explained.

“For example, Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] report the effects of percentile changes in cognitive and personality measures on a variety of outcomes over the full range of estimated relationships, relaxing traditional normality or linearity assumptions and not relying directly on measures of variance explained.”

• cites Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] sourceSupported

Both higher cognitive and personality traits have strong effects on graduating from a 4-year college at all deciles.

“As Figure 12 shows, both higher cognitive and personality traits have strong effects on graduating from a 4-year college at all deciles.”

• cites Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] sourcePartly supported

  Section 7, “Evidence from the Model” (page unavailable), says Figure 19 shows strong effects of both cognitive and noncognitive abilities on four-year college graduation. It does not establish that those effects are strong at every decile. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Better adolescent personality traits, as measured by locus of control and self-esteem, increase the probability of graduating from high school (and stopping at high school) for males at the lowest quantiles of the personality distribution.

“Figure 11 shows that better adolescent personality traits -as measured by locus of control and self-esteem (traits related to Neuroticism)-increases the probability of graduating from high school (and stopping at high school) for males at the lowest quantiles of the personality distribution.”

• cites Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] sourceSupported

Duckworth, Tsukayama and May [2010] show that changes in self-control predict subsequent changes in report card grades.

“Likewise, Duckworth, Tsukayama and May [2010] use longitudinal hierarchical linear models to show that changes in self-control predict subsequent changes in report card grades.”

• cites Duckworth, Tsukayama and May [2010] sourceSupported

Standardized adolescent measures of locus of control and self-esteem predict adult earnings to a similar degree as cognitive ability.

“Table 11 presents results from the structural model of Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] suggesting that standardized adolescent measures of locus of control and self-esteem predict adult earnings to a similar degree as cognitive ability.”

• cites Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] sourceSupported

Personality traits affect earnings above and beyond their effects on education and the effects of education on earnings.

“Other studies by Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] and Cattan [2010], using other measures of personality traits, find that the traits affect earnings above and beyond their effects on education and the effects of education on earnings.”

• cites Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] sourceSupported
• cites Cattan [2010]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Conscientiousness, locus of control and self-esteem predict sorting into occupations.

“Conscientiousness (Barrick and Mount [1991]; Ham, Junankar and Wells [2009]), locus of control and self-esteem (Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006]) predict sorting into occupations.”

• cites Barrick and Mount [1991] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Ham, Junankar and Wells [2009]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] sourceSupported

The gradient of the effect of personality on daily smoking is steepest at the high and low quantiles of the distribution.

“The gradient is steepest at the high and low quantiles of the distribution.”

• cites Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] sourcePartly supported

  Section 7, “Evidence from the Model” (page unavailable), reports that changes in the noncognitive factor affect daily smoking by age 18 and compares their effect with changes in the cognitive factor for men and women. It does not say that the smoking gradient is steepest at the high and low quantiles of the distribution. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Both the initial level and the growth in hostility throughout elementary school predict cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use in high school.

“Both the initial level and the growth in hostility (a facet of Neuroticism) throughout elementary school predict cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use in high school”

• cites Hampson, Tildesley, Andrews et al. [2010] sourceSupported

Other moderators also influence the heritability of traits.

“Krueger and colleagues have recently demonstrated that other moderators also influence the heritability of traits (see Krueger, South, Johnson et al. [2008]).”

• cites Krueger, South, Johnson et al. [2008] sourceSupported

Years of education are negatively associated with criminal activities in the US and UK.

“Lochner and Moretti [2004] and Machin, Marie and Vujić [2010] find that years of education are negatively associated with criminal activities in the US and UK, respectively.”

• cites Lochner and Moretti [2004] sourceSupported
• cites Machin, Marie and Vujić [2010] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Paroxetine affects personality above and beyond its direct effects on depression.

“More surprising is that the drug affects personality above and beyond its direct effects on depression.”

• cites Tang, DeRubeis, Hollon et al. [2009] sourceSupported

On measures of self-esteem, an additional year of high school and college play powerful roles.

“On measures of self-esteem, an additional year of high school and college play powerful roles.”

• cites Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] sourcePartly supported

  Section 7, “Evidence from the Model” (page unavailable), says schooling raises Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale scores across the grades examined. It does not establish that each additional year of high school and college has a powerful effect; the paper groups the higher schooling years in its noncognitive measurement system. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

It is possible to alter preferences and personality through experiments that change the brain's chemistry.

“A few recent studies show that it is possible to alter preferences and personality through experiments that change the brain's chemistry.”

• cites Figner, Knoch, Johnson et al. [2010] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Kosfeld, Heinrichs, Zak et al. [2005] sourcePartly supported

  The LETTERS section (page not provided) reports that intranasal oxytocin increased investors’ trusting behaviour compared with placebo, supporting the claim that changing brain chemistry can alter behaviour in an experiment. It does not establish a change in personality, or show that preferences generally can be altered. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The most dramatic causal effects on cognition arise from college attendance.

“The most dramatic causal effects on cognition arise from college attendance.”

• cites Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua [2006] sourcePartly supported

  Section 7 (Evidence from the Model; page unavailable) reports that schooling raises measured cognitive test scores, and the Conclusion likewise says schooling raises measured cognitive ability. Neither passage establishes that college attendance produces the most dramatic effects, and the finding concerns measured cognition rather than cognition generally. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Nasal sprays of oxytocin increase trust in a game-theoretic experiment.

“Similarly, nasal sprays of oxytocin increase trust (distinct from altruism or ability to assess probabilities) in a game-theoretic experiment (Kosfeld, Heinrichs, Zak et al. [2005]).”

• cites Kosfeld, Heinrichs, Zak et al. [2005] sourceSupported

Some studies show less promising results when interventions were targeted at adolescents.

“While these studies show that personality can be improved through intervention, a couple of other studies show less promising results when the interventions were targeted at adolescents (Rodríguez-Planas [2010], Holmlund and Silva [2009]).”

• cites Rodríguez-Planas [2010] sourceSupported
• cites Holmlund and Silva [2009] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Targeted intervention efforts delivered to individual children can improve aspects of Conscientiousness.

“There is also evidence that targeted intervention efforts delivered to individual children can improve aspects of Conscientiousness.”

• cites Rueda et al. [2005] sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract and Discussion report that targeted attention training in 4- and 6-year-olds produced more mature executive-attention performance, a capacity the paper relates to effortful control. But the Results tables show no improvement in parent-rated effortful control after training, and the paper does not establish an improvement in Conscientiousness itself. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Stevens et al. [2008] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Attention training improves performance on computer tasks of attention in children aged four to six.

“For instance, Rueda and colleagues [2005] designed a set of computer exercises to train attention in children between four and six years of age.Children in the intervention group improved in performance on computer tasks of attention relative to children who instead watched interactive videos for a comparable amount of time.”

• cites Rueda et al. [2005] sourcePartly supported

  The Methods describe computer-based attention exercises for 4- and 6-year-olds and, in Experiments 2 and 3, five-session video controls. The Abstract reports more mature attention-test performance in trained children than in controls. However, the Discussion says the attention-test data alone did not provide sufficient evidence for a specific training effect, so the claim overstates the comparative improvement. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Evidence from behavioral genetics shows that measured personality traits are as heritable as cognitive traits.

“The evidence from behavioral genetics shows that measured personality traits are as heritable as cognitive traits.”

Several studies find very low correlations in risk-taking behavior across situations.

“For instance, several studies find very low correlations in risk-taking behavior across situations.”

• cites [31]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

On a variety of measures of socioeconomic achievement, the Perry Preschool treatment group was far more successful than the control group.

“Yet on a variety of measures of socioeconomic achievement, the treatment group was far more successful than the control group.”

• cites [8]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The annual rate of return to the Perry Program was in the range 6-10% for boys and girls separately.

“The annual rate of return to the Perry Program was in the range 6-10% for boys and girls separately.”

• cites [9]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Studies in neuroscience show that alterations in brain structure and function through accidents, disease and by experiments affect measured personality.

“Studies in neuroscience show that alterations in brain structure and function through accidents, disease and by experiments affect measured personality.”

By age ten, treatment group mean IQs were the same as control group mean IQs in the Perry Preschool Program.

“Figure 1 shows that, by age ten, treatment group mean IQs were the same as control group mean IQs.”

Measured personality traits are positively correlated over the life cycle.

“Measured personality traits are positively correlated over the life cycle.”

Heckman, Malofeeva, Pinto et al. [2010] show that the personality traits of the Perry participants were beneficially improved in a lasting way.

“Heckman, Malofeeva, Pinto et al. [2010] show that the personality traits of the participants were beneficially improved in a lasting way.”

• cites Heckman, Malofeeva, Pinto et al. [2010]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In practice, the requirement of independence of latent factors across constructs is not easily satisfied.

“In practice, as we document below, the requirement of independence of the latent factors across constructs (lack of correlation of tests across clusters) is not easily satisfied.”

The few studies investigating empirical links between preferences and traits typically report only simple regressions or correlations without discussing any underlying model.

“The few studies investigating empirical links typically report only simple regressions or correlations without discussing any underlying model.”

One principal finding of the survey is that Conscientiousness is the most predictive Big Five trait across many outcomes.

“One principle finding of our survey, consistent with the claims of the early psychologists cited in Section 2, is that Conscientiousness is the most predictive Big Five trait across many outcomes.”

Measures of personality predict a range of educational outcomes.

“Measures of personality predict a range of educational outcomes.”

Marginal rates of substitution are often assumed to be generated by only one or two parameters, for example the discount factor and the intertemporal elasticity of substitution.

“Marginal rates of substitution are often assumed to be generated by only one or two parameters, for example the discount factor and the intertemporal elasticity of substitution.”

People seem to be more accepting of inequality if they believe that it represents a difference earned through effort rather than from differences in exogenously given talent.

“People seem to be more accepting of inequality if they believe that it represents a difference earned through effort rather than from differences in exogenously given talent.(See Tausch, Potters and Riedl [2010] for a review.)”

• cites Tausch, Potters and Riedl [2010] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When the dictator game is modified to allow dictators to take part of the second player's endowment, most dictators do not transfer positive amounts.

“With this modification, most dictators did not transfer positive amounts to the second player.”

• cites List [2007] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Bardsley [2008]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

People tend to be more selfish when the stakes of the game increase.

“Further, several studies have found that people tend to be more selfish when the stakes of the game increase”

• cites Carpenter, Verhoogen and Burks [2005]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Slonim and Roth [1998] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Parco, Rapoport and Stein [2002] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Personality traits are valued differentially across occupations.

“Personality traits are valued differentially across occupations.”

Other personality measures predict some outcomes.

“However, other personality measures predict some outcomes.”

If an agent has had an object in his possession for even a short amount of time, it affects how he trades it off against other goods.

“If an agent has had an object in his possession for even a short amount of time, it affects how he trades it off against other goods.”

Personality measures predict a variety of labor market outcomes.

“Personality measures also predict a variety of labor market outcomes.”

Traits related to Neuroticism (e.g., locus of control and self-esteem) predict a variety of labor market outcomes, including job search effort.

“Additionally, traits related to Neuroticism (e.g.locus of control and self-esteem) predict a variety of labor market outcomes, including job search effort.”

Of the Big Five, Conscientiousness best predicts overall educational attainment and achievement.

“Of the Big Five, Conscientiousness best predicts overall attainment and achievement.”

A growing body of evidence suggests that personality measures-especially those related to Conscientiousness, and, to a lesser extent, Neuroticism-predict a wide range of outcomes.

“A growing body of evidence suggests that personality measures-especially those related to Conscientiousness, and, to a lesser extent, Neuroticism-predict a wide range of outcomes.”

Reference point dependence has been demonstrated in dictator games.

“Reference point dependence has also been demonstrated in dictator games.”

Conscientiousness predicts college grades to the same degree that SAT scores do.

“Conscientiousness predicts college grades to the same degree that SAT scores do.”

Experimental measures of social preferences vary greatly across studies.

“Experimental measures of social preferences vary greatly across studies.”

People often avoid more than fair small bets.

“However, people often avoid more than fair small bets.”

Other traits, such as Openness to Experience, predict finer measures of educational attainment, such as attendance and course difficulty.

“Other traits, such as Openness to Experience, predict finer measures of educational attainment, such as attendance and course difficulty.”

Marginal rates of substitution depend on other factors such as education, age, and cultural values.

“Marginal rates of substitution depend on other factors such as education, age, cultural values, etc.”

In the standard dictator game, most dictators transfer a positive amount even though they have no monetary incentive to do so.

“Numerous studies have shown that most dictators transfer a positive amount, even though they have no monetary incentive to do so.”

A growing body of research finds that personality is associated with educational attainment.

“A growing body of research finds that personality is associated with educational attainment, suggesting that further study of personality and its determinants might shed light on the recent stagnation in educational attainment.”

School-entry attention skills, measured variously by task and questionnaire measures, prospectively predict achievement test scores, even when controlling for school-entry academic skills.

“Perhaps most conclusively, Duncan and colleagues [2007] analyzed six large, longitudinal datasets and found that school-entry attention skills, measured variously by task and questionnaire measures, prospectively predict achievement test scores, even when controlling for school-entry academic skills.”

• cites Duncan and colleagues [2007]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Intelligence is associated with years of education (r=0.55).

“and intelligence is associated with years of education ( 0.55 r  in Neisser, Boodoo, Bouchard et al. [1996]).”

• cites Neisser, Boodoo, Bouchard et al. [1996] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Several prospective studies have shown that facets of Conscientiousness and facets of Neuroticism predict successful graduation from high school.

“Supporting the evidence from the GED program that personality plays an important role in explaining educational attainment in adolescence, several prospective studies have shown that facets of Conscientiousness (e.g., self-control, distractibility) and facets of Neuroticism (e.g., internal locus of control) predict successful graduation from high school (Bowman and Matthews [1960;Gough [1964;Hath”

• cites Bowman and Matthews [1960]Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Gough [1964]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Hathaway, Reynolds and Monachesi [1969] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Associations between grades and Conscientiousness are almost as large as those between grades and cognitive ability.

“Associations between grades and Conscientiousness are almost as large as those between grades and cognitive ability.”

• cites Poropat [2009] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In general, prospective longitudinal studies support the conclusions of studies that do not account for halo effects.

“In general, these studies support the conclusions of studies that do not account for halo effects.”

Two traits related to Neuroticism, locus of control and self-esteem, explain much of the variance of the Armed Forces Qualification Test (AFQT).

“As shown in Section 5, two traits related to Neuroticism, locus of control and self-esteem, explain much of the variance of the Armed Forces Qualification Test (AFQT), an achievement test which is often used as a measure of pure intelligence in studies in economics.”

In samples from three New York City middle schools, controlling for IQ, Openness to Experience is associated with Standardized Achievement Test Scores.

“Similarly, Figure 15 shows that in samples from three New York City middle schools, controlling for IQ, Openness to Experience is associated with Standardized Achievement Test Scores.”

At higher quantiles, the probability of stopping education at high school graduation is decreasing in measured personality, because those students continue on to college.

“However, at higher quantiles, the probability of stopping education at high school graduation is decreasing in measured personality, because those students continue on to college.”

Conscientiousness has the same association with course grades at all levels.

“A notable exception to this trend is Conscientiousness, which has the same association with course grades at all levels.”

• cites Poropat [2009] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Vitaro, Brendgen, Larose et al. [2005] find that kindergarten teacher ratings of hyperactivity-inattention (inversely) predicted completion of high school better than did aggressiveness-opposition.

“In contrast, Vitaro, Brendgen, Larose et al. [2005] examine individuals in a population-based sample of Quebec children and find that kindergarten teacher ratings of hyperactivity-inattention (inversely) predicted completion of high school better than did aggressiveness-opposition.”

• cites Vitaro, Brendgen, Larose et al. [2005] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Controlling for rudimentary measures of crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence does not affect the coefficients on the Big Five within the third sample.

“However, as Figure 9 illustrates, controlling for rudimentary measures of crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence does not affect the coefficients on the Big Five within the third sample.”

Moving from the lowest decile to the highest decile in the measured personality distribution increases the probability of graduating from college more than a similar change in the cognitive trait distribution.

“Moving from the lowest decile to the highest decile in the measured personality distribution increases the probability of graduating from college more than a similar change in the cognitive trait distribution.”

There is evidence that the association between Conscientiousness and course grades is mediated by positive study habits and attitudes, effort, and prosocial behavior in the classroom.

“Indeed, there is evidence that the association between Conscientiousness and course grades is mediated by positive study habits and attitudes, effort, and prosocial behavior in the classroom.”

• cites [187] Fleeson, William (2001). "Toward a Structure-and Process-Integrated View of Personality: Traits as Density Distributions of States." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80(6): 1011-1027. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

All Big Five traits predict some health outcomes.

“All Big Five traits predict some health outcomes.”

GED recipients have the same distribution of measured achievement test scores as high school graduates who do not attend college.

“Indeed GED recipients have the same distribution of measured achievement test scores as high school graduates who do not attend college.”

Traits related to Big Five Openness to Experience and Conscientiousness are particularly important in determining how many total years of education individuals complete in their lifetimes.

“In sum, traits related to Big Five Openness to Experience and Conscientiousness are particularly important in determining how many total years of education individuals complete in their lifetimes.”

Fergusson and Horwood [1998] find that teacher and parent ratings of conduct problems at age 8 are negatively related to predicted high school completion at age 18.

“Likewise, Fergusson and Horwood [1998] find that teacher and parent ratings of conduct problems at age 8 are negatively related to predicted high school completion at age 18.”

• cites Fergusson and Horwood [1998]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Of the Big Five, Openness to Experience is most consistently associated with fewer contemporaneously measured school absences in seventh, tenth, and twelfth grades.

“Likewise, of the Big Five, Openness to Experience is most consistently associated with fewer contemporaneously measured school absences in seventh grade ( 0.31, 0.01) r p    , tenth grade ( 0.19, 0.01) r p    , and twelfth grade ( 0.27, 0.01) r p    (Lounsbury, Steel, Loveland et al. [2004]).”

• cites Lounsbury, Steel, Loveland et al. [2004] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Teacher and parent ratings of early childhood persistence, (low) distractibility, and (low) activity prospectively predict both course grades and standardized achievement test scores.

“Roy Martin and colleagues were among the first to demonstrate that teacher and parent ratings of early childhood persistence, (low) distractibility, and (low) activity prospectively predict both course grades and standardized achievement test scores (see Martin [1989] for a summary).”

• cites Martin [1989]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Attention and early aggression, traits related to Conscientiousness and Agreeableness, are also predictive of educational outcomes.

“Attention and early aggression, traits related to Conscientiousness and Agreeableness, are also predictive.”

Conscientiousness is the most robust Big Five predictor of course grades, in terms of raw and partial correlations.

“Conscientiousness is the most robust Big Five predictor of course grades, in terms of raw and partial correlations.”

• cites Poropat [2009] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Two traits related to Neuroticism, locus of control and self-esteem, play a particularly important role for adolescent schooling decisions.

“Two traits related to Neuroticism, locus of control and self-esteem, play a particularly important role for adolescent schooling decisions.”

Openness to Experience is the only Big Five factor with moderate associations with general intelligence (r=0.33 in a meta-analysis).

“Openness to Experience, however, is the only Big Five factor with moderate associations with general intelligence ( 0.33 r  in a meta-analysis by Ackerman and Heggestad [1997])”

• cites Ackerman and Heggestad [1997] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Two of the studies control for cognitive ability and find that the coefficient drops to between 1.4 and 1.5.

“Two of the studies control for cognitive ability and find that the coefficient drops to between 1.4 and 1.5.”

In a prospective study of an entire cohort of Belgium's medical students, the correlation (corrected for censoring) of Conscientiousness for GPA increased from r=0.18 in the first year to r=0.45 in the seventh and final year.

“Consistent with this possibility, in a prospective study of an entire cohort of Belgium's medical students, the correlation (corrected for censoring) of Conscientiousness for GPA increased from 0.18 r  in the first year to 0.45 r  in the seventh and final year (Lievens, Dilchert and Ones [2009]).”

• cites Lievens, Dilchert and Ones [2009] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In a sample of Chinese primary school children, effortful control predicted report card grades when controlling for baseline grades.

“In a sample of Chinese primary school children, effortful control predicted report card grades when controlling for baseline grades (Zhou, Main and Wang [2010]).”

• cites Zhou, Main and Wang [2010] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

When controlling for basic demographics, a one standard deviation increase in locus of control is associated with a 4.5-6.8 percentage point increase in graduating from high school.

“When controlling for basic demographics, a one standard deviation increase in locus of control is associated with a 4.5-6.8percentage point increase in graduating from high school.”

GED recipients have noncognitive skills (personality traits) similar to high school dropouts.

“However, GED recipients have noncognitive skills (personality traits) similar to high school dropouts.”

Internalizing behavior and externalizing behaviors at school-entry do not reliably predict standardized achievement test scores.

“In contrast, internalizing behavior (e.g.depression, anxiousness, withdrawal) and externalizing behaviors (e.g.aggression, hyperactivity, antisocial behavior) at school-entry do not reliably predict standardized achievement test scores.”

• cites Duncan and colleagues [2007]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Course grades and standardized test scores are generally highly correlated.

“Course grades and standardized test scores are generally highly correlated.”

Conscientiousness and SAT scores are similarly predictive of college GPA.

“Table 10 presents results showing that Conscientiousness and SAT scores are similarly predictive of college GPA.”

Of the Big Five, the coefficient on Conscientiousness is the only one that is statistically significant with a lower bound on the 90% credibility value of 0.10.

“Of the Big Five, the coefficient on Conscientiousness is the only one that is statistically significant with a lower bound on the 90% credibility value of 0.10.”

Frey and Detterman [2004] found a correlation of r=0.82 (p<0.01) between SAT scores and performance on the ASVAB.

“It is therefore not surprising that Frey and Detterman [2004] found a correlation of 0.82 r  ( 0.01) p  between SAT scores and performance on the ASVAB, an aptitude and achievement test developed for the United States Army.”

• cites Frey and Detterman [2004] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Willingham, Pollack and Lewis [2002] estimate a raw correlation of r=0.62 (p<0.01) between total grade average and achievement test scores.

“Willingham, Pollack and Lewis [2002] estimate a raw correlation of 0.62 r  ( 0.01) p  between total grade average and achievement test scores.”

• cites Willingham, Pollack and Lewis [2002] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The power of standardized achievement tests to predict later academic and occupational outcomes is well-established.

“The power of standardized achievement tests to predict later academic and occupational outcomes is well-established (Kuncel and Hezlett [2007]; Sackett, Borneman and Connelly [2008]; Willingham [1985]).”

• cites Kuncel and Hezlett [2007] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sackett, Borneman and Connelly [2008] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Willingham [1985]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

High school GPA more powerfully predicts college rank-in-class than SAT/ACT scores do.

“Similarly, high school GPA more powerfully predicts college rank-in-class (Bowen, Chingos and McPherson [2009b];Geiser and Santelices [2007]).”

• cites Bowen, Chingos and McPherson [2009b]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Geiser and Santelices [2007]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Cumulative high school GPA predicts graduation from college dramatically better than SAT/ACT scores do, even without adjusting for differences in high school quality.

“Nevertheless, cumulative high school GPA predicts graduation from college dramatically better than SAT/ACT scores do, even without adjusting for differences in high school quality (Bowen, Chingos and McPherson [2009b]).”

• cites Bowen, Chingos and McPherson [2009b]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The correlations that were statistically significant at the 5% level or less ranged from 0.06 for the effect of Extraversion on physical activity to 0.12 for the effect of Conscientiousness on self-reported health status.

“The correlations that were statistically significant at the 5% level or less ranged from 0.06 for the effect of Extraversion on physical activity to 0.12 for the effect of Conscientiousness on self-reported health status.”

• cites Hampson, Goldberg, Vogt et al. [2007]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The behaviors used to measure the Big Five traits are also determined by factors other than the Big Five traits.

“The behaviors used to measure the traits are also determined by factors other than the Big Five traits.”

Without further information, one cannot determine which component of the identified pair is θ_{1,μ} or θ_{1,π}.

“One cannot (without further information) determine which component of the pair is 1,  or 1,  .”

Failure to adjust for effort produces variability across situations with different rewards, as discussed in the person-situation debate.

“Failure to adjust for effort produces the kind of variability across situations with different rewards that was much discussed in the person-situation debate.”

Even if these problems do not arise, only the pair (θ_{1,μ}, θ_{1,π}) is identified.

“Note that even if these problems do not arise, only the pair   1, 1, ,     is identified.”

In general, even having two or more measures of productivity that depend on two components is not enough to identify the separate components.

“But in general, even having two (or more) measures of productivity that depend on   1, 1, ,     is not enough to identify the separate components.”

Cognitive and personality traits affect earnings capacity because they enhance productivity.

“For example, cognitive and personality traits affect earnings capacity because they enhance productivity (see, e.g., Bowles, Gintis and Osborne [2001a])”

• cites Bowles, Gintis and Osborne [2001a]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

One needs to standardize for the incentives to exert effort across tasks and differences in the endowments of effort in order to use measurements of performance on tasks to identify traits.

“One needs to standardize for the incentives to exert effort across tasks and differences in the endowments of effort in order to use measurements of performance on tasks to identify traits,  .”

If effort is involved in performance of a task used to uniquely define a trait, failure to standardize measured performance will contaminate the estimate of the trait with effort endowment and factors contributing to effort, including reward R_j.

“Otherwise, the endowment of effort, and all of the factors that contribute to the exertion of effort, including the reward to the task, j R , will contaminate the estimate of the trait.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Construct validity has been established.

As the reward for activity j increases, everything else constant, the effort devoted to j will increase.

“As the reward for activity j , j R , increases, everything else constant, the effort devoted to j will increase.”

A person who exerts more self-control in one task may be less self-controlled in another task.

“A person who exerts more self-control in one task may be less self-controlled in another task.”

Even if one adjusts for effort in a task, productivity in a task may depend on multiple traits.

“Even if one adjusts for effort in a task, and thus adjusts for situational specificity, productivity in a task may depend on multiple traits.”

People with different effort and capability endowments will generally choose different tasks.

“People with different effort and capability endowments will generally choose different tasks.”

John [1990], Goldberg [1993], and Costa and McCrae [1992a] present evidence that most variables used to assess personality traits in academic research can be mapped into one or more of the dimensions of the Big Five.

“John [1990], Goldberg [1993], and Costa and McCrae [1992a] present evidence that most of the variables used to assess personality traits in academic research in the field of personality psychology can be mapped into one or more of the dimensions of the Big Five.”

• cites John [1990]Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Goldberg [1993]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Costa and McCrae [1992a]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

A recent analysis of the Perry Preschool Program shows that traits other than those measured by IQ and achievement tests causally determine life outcomes.

“A recent analysis of the Perry Preschool Program shows that traits other than those measured by IQ and achievement tests causally determine life outcomes.”

• cites [4]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

If functional forms of φ_j and φ_j' are known and the system satisfies a local rank condition, one can solve for the pair (θ_{1,μ}, θ_{1,π}) at common effort e*.

“If the functional forms of the   • j  and   • j   are known, and the system of equations satisfies a local rank condition, then one can solve for the pair   1, 1, ,     at e  .”

Productivity functions need not be monotone in θ_{1,μ} or θ_{1,π}.

“The productivity functions need not be monotone in 1,  or 1,  .”

Standard measures of cognition are heavily influenced by personality traits and incentives.

“Moreover, standard measures of cognition are heavily influenced by personality traits and incentives.”

Even if productivity P_j in task j is measurable and only one component of θ affects P_j, identifying the level of a trait requires controlling for the level of effort applied to j.

“Even if we can measure productivity j P in task j , and only one component of  affects j P , to identify the level of a trait one must control for the level of effort applied to j in order to use j P to infer the level of 1, j  .”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Construct validity has been established.

The choice of effort depends on the pattern of complementarity and substitutability.

“The choice of effort depends on the pattern of complementarity and substitutability.”

The extreme situationist view that constraints and incentives in situations almost entirely determine behavior is no longer generally accepted in psychology.

“This once popular, extreme situationist view is no longer generally accepted in psychology.”

• cites [14]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

To use P_j to identify a trait measure uniform across situations with different effort levels, one must standardize for effort at a benchmark level e*.

“That is, one must standardize for the effort at a benchmark level, say e  , to use j P to identify a measure of the trait that is uniform across different situations that elicit different levels of effort.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Construct validity has been established.

A dedicated measurement for at least one component is an essential requirement for identification.

“A dedicated measurement for at least one component is an essential requirement for identification.”

The power of cognitive ability in predicting social and economic success is well documented.

“The power of cognitive ability in predicting social and economic success is well documented.”

• cites [2]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Something about measured personality is real.

“This evidence and other evidence shows that something about measured personality is real.”

In the Roy model extension with costs C_j(e,θ), a further identification problem arises: whether the identified trait arises from its role in costs, productivity, or both.

“This extension creates a further identification problem- whether the trait identified arises from its role in costs, productivity, or both.”

Without further information, one cannot infer which of two traits produces productivity in task j when two components of θ determine productivity in j.

“Thus two components of  (say 1,  , 1,  ) may determine productivity in task j .Without further information, one cannot infer which of the two traits produces the productivity in j .”

The particular choice of which task to perform depends on the productivity of traits in different tasks.

“The particular choice of which j to perform depends on the productivity of traits in different tasks.”

For many outcomes, personality measures are just as predictive as cognitive measures, even after controlling for family background and cognition.

“For many outcomes, personality measures are just as predictive as cognitive measures, even after controlling for family background and cognition.”

Those situations in turn may influence current actions.

“Those situations in turn may influence current actions.”

Parameters that affect subjective well-being but not choices can be identified from measures of well-being, but not from choices.

“Parameters that affect subjective well-being but not choices can be identified from the measures of well-being, but not from choices.”

If elements of T are augmented over the life cycle through investment and practice, the actions and efforts required to achieve a given task can change.

“Notice that if elements of v T are augmented over the life cycle through investment and practice, the actions and efforts required to achieve a given task can change.”

Failure to control for situation h, just like failure to control for effort, will contaminate identification of traits using measures of actions or productivities.

“Failure to control for situation h , just like failure to control for effort, will contaminate identification of traits using measures of actions or productivities.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Situations affect productivity by affecting the set of possible actions and hence the action taken.

Otherwise, for each task one can create a unique factor and the model becomes tautological.

“Otherwise for each task one can create a unique factor and the model becomes tautological.”

Investments have dynamic effects.

“Investments have dynamic effects.”

A major difference between the two groups comes in the role of investment in producing traits.

“A major difference between the two groups comes in the role of investment in producing traits.”

Under specification (12), agents with the same actions, efforts, and traits may have different productivities.

“Under specification (12), agents with the same actions, the same efforts, and the same traits may have different productivities.”

Only under separability will one obtain the same marginal effect of θ when defining enduring traits by averaging over tasks, situations, or both.

“Only under separability will one obtain the same marginal effect of  .”

The number of components in T, L, has to be small relative to J for the factor model to have any explanatory power.

“The number of components in n T , L, has to be small relative to J ( L J  ) for the factor model to have any explanatory power.”

Constraints limit agents' revealed choice behavior.

“Nonetheless, constraints limit their revealed choice behavior.”

As a result of experience including social interactions, situations, biology, and investment, traits may change over the life cycle.

“As a result of experience (including social interactions), situations, biology (ontogeny), and investment, traits may change over the life cycle.”

The trait theorists do not consider investment and social interactions as direct determinants of traits.

“The trait theorists do not consider this possibility.”

Under increasing returns to effort in each action, the agent will apply all effort in task j to the action that gives the highest productivity, and other possible actions are not taken.

“A special case arises when there are increasing returns to effort in each action.In that case, the agent will simply apply all of his effort j e in task j to the action which gives him the highest productivity, and the other possible actions are not taken.”

If θ is enhanced over time, the amount of effort required to perform a task may be reduced.

“Thus, if , v  is enhanced over time, the amount of effort required to perform a task may be reduced.”

This leads directly to the analysis of latent variables and to factor models that underlie much of the analysis of trait psychology.

“This leads directly to the analysis of latent variables and to factor models that underlie much of the analysis of trait psychology.”

Traits are not set in stone.

“Traits are not set in stone.”

A correlation of outcomes across tasks can arise because tasks depend on the same vector of traits.

“A correlation of outcomes across tasks can arise because tasks depend on the same vector of traits.”

Past actions may serve to determine the set of present situations.

“Past actions may serve to determine the set of present situations.”

Introducing actions widens the set of data from which one might infer the components of T.

“Introducing actions widens the set of data from which one might infer the components of .T”

Recent studies applying personality traits to search economics suggest that agents with a higher perception of control over their lives have greater confidence in the arrival of job offers.

“Several recent studies that apply personality traits to search economics suggest that agents with a higher perception of the control they have over their lives have greater confidence in the arrival of job offers.”

• cites McGee [2010]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Caliendo, Cobb-Clark and Uhlendorff [2010] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

If ν_{i,j} is separable in T, the marginal effect of personality trait vector θ is the same in all situations.

“Notice that if  , i j is separable in T , the marginal effect of personality trait vector  is the same in all situations.”

The measurements and clusters of tests in standard factor-analytic construct definition are selected on intuitive or a priori grounds, not on the basis of predictive validity in terms of real-world outcomes.

“The measurements and clusters of tests are selected on intuitive grounds or a priori grounds, and not on the basis of any predictive validity in terms of real-world outcomes (for example, success in college, performance on the job, earnings).”

• cites Borsboom, Mellenbergh and van Heerden [2003] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Using early measures of traits determined well before outcomes to predict later outcomes is problematic if the traits evolve over time and contemporary trait values drive behavior.

“This approach is problematic if the traits the analyst seeks to identify evolve over time and the contemporary values of traits drive behavior.”

Most estimates of the effects of psychological traits on outcomes, whether from within or across studies, have no causal status.

“These methods do not address the deeper problem that most of the estimates of”

The factors are estimated to change over the life cycle as a consequence of experience and investment.

“The factors are estimated to change over the life cycle as a consequence of experience and investment.”

Subconscious motives to see themselves as virtuous may produce faking behavior even when responses are anonymous.

“Subconscious motives to see themselves as virtuous may produce the same faking behavior, even when responses are anonymous.”

Cunha, Heckman and Schennach [2010] and Cunha and Heckman [2008] allow the latent factor to determine investment and experience.

“Cunha, Heckman and Schennach [2010] and Cunha and Heckman [2008] allow for the latent factor to determine investment and experience.”

• cites Cunha, Heckman and Schennach [2010]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Cunha and Heckman [2008]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Using early measures of traits trades a reverse causality problem for an errors-in-variables problem.

“This practice trades a reverse causality problem with a version of an errors in variables problem.”

Many psychologists focus on prediction, not causality.

“Many psychologists focus on prediction, not causality.91”

Measuring personality traits prior to measuring predicted outcomes does not necessarily solve the reverse causality problem.

“Measuring personality traits prior to measuring predicted outcomes does not necessarily solve this problem.”

These frameworks use an extension of factor analysis to represent proxies for low-dimensional factors.

“They use an extension of factor analysis to represent proxies for low-dimensional factors.”

Some evidence suggests that faking has a surprisingly minimal effect on predicting job performance.

“Some evidence suggests that faking has a surprisingly minimal effect on predicting job performance.”

• cites Hough, Eaton, Dunnette et al. [1990] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hough and Ones [2002]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Ones and Viswesvaran [1998] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Standard experimental and econometric techniques for inferring causality from within-person changes have only recently been applied to generate causal effects of personality.

“Standard experimental and econometric techniques for inferring causality from within person changes have only recently been applied to generate causal effects of personality. 103”

• cites Cunha, Heckman and Schennach [2010]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Heckman, Malofeeva, Pinto et al. [2010]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

There are at least two types of false responses: impression management and self-deception.

“There are at least two types of false responses: those arising from impression management and those arising from selfdeception (Paulhus [1984]).”

• cites Paulhus [1984] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

As long as there are measurement errors for a construct, there is no limit to the number of proxies for its latent factor that will show up as statistically significant predictors of an outcome.

“As long as there are measurement errors for construct l , there is no limit to the number of proxies for , n l T that will show up as statistically significant predictors of an outcome.”

Factor analytic studies summarize interindividual variation but do not necessarily inform analysts about the effects of exogenously changing the factor in producing outcomes across individuals.

“Such factor analytic studies summarize interindividual variation but do not necessarily inform analysts about the effects of exogenously changing the factor in producing outcomes across individuals.”

The linear factor model does not capture a variety of interesting interactions among traits.

“The linear factor model does not capture a variety of interesting interactions among traits.”

Outcomes across tasks may be correlated even if the components of T are not.

“Outcomes across tasks may be correlated even if the components of n T are not.”

Behaviors, tests, observer reports, and self reports all can be used to proxy underlying traits.

“Behaviors, tests, observer reports, and self reports all can be used to proxy the underlying traits.”

• cites Groth-Marnat [2009]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Individuals who know that their responses on a personality questionnaire will be used for hiring decisions may deliberately exaggerate strengths and downplay weaknesses.

“For example, individuals who know that their responses on a personality questionnaire will be used to make hiring decisions may deliberately exaggerate their strengths and downplay their weaknesses.”

For policy analysis, including analyses of new programs designed to augment the skills of the disadvantaged, causal models are required to generate policy counterfactuals.

“However, for policy analysis, including analyses of new programs designed to augment the skills of the disadvantaged, causal models are required in order to generate policy counterfactuals.”

The difficulty of satisfying independence of latent factors across constructs fuels controversy among psychologists advocating competing taxonomies.

“This fuels controversy among psychologists advocating competing taxonomies.”

All measurements of a factor can claim incremental predictive validity as long as each measurement is subject to error.

“First, all measurements of factor , n l T can claim incremental predictive validity as long as each measurement is subject to error   , 0 q n l   .”

Temperamental differences observed during the preschool years anticipate adult personality and interpersonal functioning decades later.

“The past decade has seen some convergence of these two research traditions, however, and there is evidence that temperamental differences observed during the preschool years anticipate adult personality and interpersonal functioning decades later (for example, Caspi [2000]; Newman, Caspi, Moffitt et al. [1997]; Shiner and Caspi [2003]).”

• cites Caspi [2000]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Newman, Caspi, Moffitt et al. [1997]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Shiner and Caspi [2003] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Proxies for a latent factor can appear to be separate determinants instead of surrogates for an underlying one-dimensional construct or factor.

“Proxies for , n l T can appear to be separate determinants (or”

Early measures of traits may be poor proxies for the traits that drive measured current behavior.

“Early measures of the traits may be poor proxies for the traits that drive measured current behavior.”

Lower-order factors have independent predictive power from higher-order factors.

“They have independent predictive power from the higher-order factors.”

Structural equation methods have been used to estimate causal relationships using cross-person variation.

“Structural equation methods have been used to estimate causal relationships using cross-person variation.”

Variations of traits within persons may have very different effects than variations across persons.

“In addition, variations of traits within persons may have very different effects than variations across persons.”

Establishing predictive validity will often be enough to achieve the goal of making personnel assignment and student placement decisions.

“Establishing predictive validity will often be enough to achieve the goal of making personnel assignment and student placement decisions.”

Reverse causality is a problem for validating measurement systems based on predictive power, especially when interpreting correlations between personality measurements and outcomes.

“A second problem with this approach to validation is reverse causality.This is especially problematic when interpreting correlations between personality measurements and outcomes.”

It is necessary to correct for measurement error in using predictive validity to identify and measure traits.

“For this reason, it is necessary to correct for measurement error in using predictive validity to identify and measure traits.”

Structural equation methods rely on simultaneous equations exclusion restrictions to secure identification.

“They rely on the usual toolkit of simultaneous equations exclusion restrictions to secure identification.102”

• cites Aigner, Hsiao, Kapteyn et al. [1984]Not checked — no full text of the source

Cunha, Heckman and Schennach [2010] and the papers they cite develop a nonlinear non-normal factor analysis that allows measurement errors to be correlated across measures and over time.

“Cunha, Heckman and Schennach [2010] and the papers they cite develop a nonlinear non-normal factor analysis that allows for measurement errors to be correlated across measures and over time.”

• cites Cunha, Heckman and Schennach [2010]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Correcting for faking using scales designed to measure deliberate lying does not seem to improve predictive validity.

“Correcting for faking using scales designed to measure deliberate lying does not seem to improve predictive validity.”

• cites Morgeson, Campion, Dipboye et al. [2007] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Table 5 summarizes evidence that extrinsic incentives can substantially improve performance on tests of cognitive ability, especially among low-IQ individuals.

“Table 5 summarizes evidence that extrinsic incentives can substantially improve performance on tests of cognitive ability, especially among low-IQ individuals.”

Many IQ tests require factual knowledge acquired through schooling and life experience, which are in part determined by motivation, curiosity, and persistence.

“Many IQ tests require factual knowledge acquired through schooling and life experience, which are, in part, determined by the motivation, curiosity, and persistence of the test taker.”

A smart child unable to sit still or uninterested in exerting effort can produce spuriously low scores on an IQ test.

“A smart child unable to sit still during an exam or uninterested in exerting much effort can produce spuriously low scores on an IQ test.”

The recent research relies upon structural validity rather than historical path dependency.

“Second, the recent research relies upon structural validity (e.g., evidence of convergent and discriminant validity) rather than historical path dependency (e.g., diagnoses that persist because they are familiar to clinicians who learned about them during their training).”

Cunha and Heckman [2008] show a correlation between cognitive and personality factors of the order of 0.3.

“Cunha and Heckman [2008] show a correlation between cognitive and personality factors of the order of 0.3 r  .”

• cites Cunha and Heckman [2008]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Solutions with more factors can increase the prediction of outcomes including job performance, income, and change in psychiatric status.

“Solutions with more factors can increase the prediction of outcomes including job performance, income, and change in psychiatric status (Mershon and Gorsuch [1988]).”

• cites Mershon and Gorsuch [1988] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Personality traits can affect IQ scores indirectly through knowledge acquired by individuals higher in Big Five Openness and Conscientiousness.

“Thus, personality traits can also affect IQ scores indirectly through the knowledge acquired by individuals who are higher in Big Five Openness to Experience and Big Five Conscientiousness.”

A practical problem facing analysts measuring personality is the multiplicity of personality questionnaires.

“A practical problem facing the analyst who wishes to measure personality is the multiplicity of personality questionnaires.”

Estimates based on the Big Five factors obscure relationships between specific facets of the Big Five and outcomes.

“Estimates based on the Big Five factors obscure relationships between specific facets of the Big Five and outcomes.”

Test anxiety can significantly impair performance.

“Like low motivation, test anxiety can significantly impair performance (Hembree [1988]).”

• cites Hembree [1988] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In Zigler and Butterfield's study, benefits of intervention on IQ were not apparent under testing conditions where motivation to perform well was maximal.

“In their study, the benefits of intervention (in comparison to a no-treatment control group) on IQ were not apparent under testing conditions where motivation to perform well was maximal.”

• cites Zigler and Butterfield [1968]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Performance on IQ tests encodes, in part, how effective persons may be in application of their intelligence in real-world settings.

“Performance on IQ tests encodes, in part, how effective persons may be in application of their intelligence, that is, how people are likely to perform in a real-world setting.”

A compelling argument can be made for conceptualizing and measuring mental disorders as extreme variants of personality traits.

“In particular, a compelling argument can be made for conceptualizing of and measuring mental disorders as extreme variants of personality traits (see Krueger and Eaton [2010] and ensuing commentary).”

• cites Krueger and Eaton [2010] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

IQ scores do not accurately reflect maximal intellectual performance for individuals who are low in Conscientiousness and Emotional Stability.

“Thus, IQ scores do not accurately reflect maximal intellectual performance for individuals who are low in Conscientiousness and Emotional Stability.”

Among individuals with low IQ scores, performance on IQ tests could be increased up to a full standard deviation by offering incentives such as money or candy, particularly on group-administered tests and at the low end of the IQ spectrum.

“These studies show that among individuals with low IQ scores, performance on IQ tests could be increased up to a full standard deviation by offering incentives such as money or candy, particularly on group-administered tests and particularly with individuals at the low-end of the IQ spectrum.”

Self-esteem and locus of control are collected in large-sample longitudinal studies used by economists.

“The traits of self-esteem and locus of control deserve special attention since they are collected in large-sample longitudinal studies used by economists.”

Studies of more diverse cultures show that Big Six or Multi-Language Seven taxonomies may better represent the personality domain.

“And, although the Big Five structure appears to replicate across many cultures (McCrae and Costa [1997b]), studies of more diverse cultures show that taxonomies known as the Big Six (Ashton, Lee, Perugini et al. [2004]) or the Multi-Language Seven (ML7; Saucier [2003]), may better represent the personality domain.”

• cites Ashton, Lee, Perugini et al. [2004] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Saucier [2003] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Lower-level facets predicted course grades among undergraduates better than their higher-level factor measures in comparisons of Conscientiousness and Openness with need for achievement and need for understanding.

“For instance, Paunonen and Ashton [2001] compared Big Five Conscientiousness and Openness to Experience with two related facets, need for achievement and need for understanding.In each comparison, the lower-level facet predicted course grades among undergraduates better than its higher-level factor measure.”

• cites Paunonen and Ashton [2001] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Because each Big Five factor is a composite of distinct facets, predictive validities are diluted when analyses consider only factor-level aggregate scores.

“Given that each Big Five factor is a composite of distinct facets, the predictive validities are diluted when analyses consider only factor-level aggregate scores.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Each Big Five factor is a composite of distinct facets.

The Big Five structure appears to replicate across many cultures.

“And, although the Big Five structure appears to replicate across many cultures (McCrae and Costa [1997b]), studies of more diverse cultures show that taxonomies known as the Big Six (Ashton, Lee, Perugini et al. [2004]) or the Multi-Language Seven (ML7; Saucier [2003]), may better represent the personality domain.”

• cites McCrae and Costa [1997b]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Performance on intelligence and achievement tests depends in part on personality traits of the test taker and their motivation to perform.

“Performance on intelligence and achievement tests depends in part on personality traits of the test taker, as well as their motivation to perform.”

The Five-Factor model is derived from factor analysis of a variety of measures without firm biological underpinnings.

“It is derived from factor analysis of a variety of measures without any firm biological underpinnings.”

The lack of direct correspondence between measures of temperament and measures of adult personality presents a challenge to researchers documenting personality changes over the full life cycle.

“The lack of direct correspondence between measures of temperament and measures of adult personality presents a challenge to researchers interested in documenting changes in personality over the full life cycle.”

A series of studies conducted over the past 40 years support the concern that IQ scores should be standardized for effort.

“A series of studies conducted over the past 40 years support this concern.”

Cattell's investment theory anticipates recent findings that knowledge and specific complex skills depend not only on fluid intelligence but also on cumulative investment of effort and exposure to learning opportunities.

“Cattell's investment theory [1971] anticipates recent findings that knowledge and specific complex skills depend not only on fluid intelligence but also on the cumulative investment of effort and exposure to learning opportunities.”

• cites Cattell [1971]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Mischel's [1968] claim that there is no stable personality trait across situations does not hold up against a large array of data.

“Mischel's [1968] claim that there is no stable personality trait across situations does not hold up against a large array of data.”

• cites Mischel [1968]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

A precise mapping between measures of preferences and traits is not yet available.

“In addition to the experimental measures, it is tempting to try to map preferences to more vaguely defined traits, but the precise mapping has not yet been made.”

• Also stated in: § Mapping Preferences into Personality · plain

  “Despite some plausible empirical and conceptual links between preferences and traits, a precise mapping between the measures is not yet available.”

Personality traits and incentives can affect standardized achievement tests commonly used as proxies for pure intelligence.

“Just as personality traits and incentives can affect IQ scores, they can also affect standardized achievement tests that are commonly used as proxies for pure intelligence.”

Making calculations to compare present and future rewards is more effortful (costly) for individuals of low cognitive ability.

“At the least, making such calculations is more effortful (that is, costly) for individuals of low cognitive ability.”

The inverse relationship between discount rates and intelligence is not just an artifact of measurement.

“The complexity entailed by comparing the present and future values of rewards suggests that the inverse relationship between discount rates and intelligence is not just an artifact of measurement.”

Preference measurements that do not account for all of the constraints that agents face might be biased.

“Preference measurements that do not account for all of the constraints that agents face might be biased.”

The difference in approach makes it intrinsically difficult to compare economic and psychological measures.

“The difference in approach makes it intrinsically difficult to compare economic and psychological measures.”

Failure to account for the traits that reflect constraints could lead to bias.

“Failure to account for the traits that reflect constraints could lead to bias.”

Epstein establishes consistency across different types of measures.

“He also establishes consistency (high levels of correlation) across the different types of measures.”

• cites Epstein [1979] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The empirical evidence supporting intuitive mappings of preferences to traits is weak.

“Despite this intuitive mapping of preferences to traits, the empirical evidence supporting such mappings is weak.”

The links between social preferences and the Big Five traits are better established.

“The links between social preferences and the Big Five traits are better established.”

Borkenau, Mauer, Riemann et al. [2004] establish a correlation of 0.43 of Big Five personality traits (self-rated and observer-rated) across 15 very different tasks, with range 0.29 to 0.51.

“In one of the most ambitious recent studies of this question, Borkenau, Mauer, Riemann et al. [2004] establish a correlation of 0.43 of personality traits measured by the Big Five (self rated and observer rated) across 15 very different tasks.The range of correlations is from 0.29 to 0.51.”

• cites Borkenau, Mauer, Riemann et al. [2004] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

If the cost of making calculations exceeds the expected benefit of such deliberation, the individual may choose by default the immediate, certain reward.

“If the cost of making calculations exceeds the expected benefit of such deliberation, the individual may choose by default the immediate, certain reward.”

The facets are incrementally valid in explaining variance above and beyond IQ when all three are included in a regression.

“Furthermore, the facets are incrementally valid in that they explain the variance above and beyond the variance that IQ explains when all three are included in a regression.”

• cites Borghans, Golsteyn, Heckman et al. [2010]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The higher level of generality tends to make it difficult to identify the parameters in the data commonly used by economists.

“Note that while some of the nonstandard features of preferences may seem compelling, the higher level of generality tends to make it difficult to identify the parameters in the data commonly used by economists.”

The measure of intelligence used by Herrnstein and Murray in The Bell Curve to predict social and economic outcomes is substantially affected by personality measures.

“Ironically, the measure of intelligence used by Herrnstein and Murray in The Bell Curve to predict a variety of social and economic outcomes is substantially affected by personality measures.”

Epstein [1979] presents empirical evidence that averaging over tasks and situations at a point in time, persons act predictably with high reliability (R^2 of 0.6-0.8) of average behavior across situations.

“In four different studies, he presents compelling empirical evidence that, averaging over tasks and situations at a point in time, persons act in a predictable fashion with a high level of reliability ( 2 R of 0.6-0.8) of average behavior (”

• cites Epstein [1979] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Traditional preference parameters may not span the entire space of human decisions measured by psychologists.

“Second, traditional preference parameters may not span the entire space of human decisions measured by psychologists.”

The empirical links between preference parameters and personality traits depend on the data used.

“However, the empirical links between preference parameters and personality traits depend on the data used.”

Measured personality is generated by underlying preference parameters and constraints.

“In Section 3, we argued that measured personality is generated by underlying preference parameters and constraints.”

Some evidence suggests that considering facets of the Big Five might help establish a mapping between personality and preferences.

“Some evidence suggests that considering facets of the Big Five might help establish a mapping between personality and preferences.”

A substantial portion of the variance in both AFQT and DAT scores is explained by personality factors.

“A substantial portion of the variance in both the AFQT score and DAT scores is explained by personality factors.”

• cites Borghans, Golsteyn, Heckman et al. [2010]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

There is little evidence connecting risk aversion and sensation seeking.

“There is little evidence connecting risk aversion and sensation seeking, but Eckel and Grossman [2002] include it as a control in a study of risk aversion and find no statistically significant effect.”

• cites Eckel and Grossman [2002] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Virtually all papers in a recent special issue acknowledge the existence of stable personality traits whose manifestations are tempered by situations and incentives.

“Virtually all papers in that special issue acknowledge the existence of stable personality traits whose manifestations are tempered by situations and incentives.”

• cites Lucas and Donnellan [2009] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Causal claims about the relationship between preferences and traits are, at this stage, largely premature.

“Hence causal claims are, at this stage, largely premature.”

Experimental measures of social preferences do not predict real life behavior well.

“Benz and Meier [2008] compare measures of social preferences with charitable giving in a field experiment and find that experimental measures do not predict real life behavior well.”

• cites Benz and Meier [2008] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Measures of risk tolerance only explain a small fraction of the variation in risky behaviors.

“However, measures of risk tolerance only explain a small fraction of the variation in risky behaviors.”

• cites Barsky, Juster, Kimball et al. [1997] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

With current knowledge, it is difficult to relate personality measures to economic preference parameters except when the traits are the parameters.

“However, with our current knowledge, it is difficult to relate them to economic preference parameters except, of course, when the traits are the parameters.”

These results cannot be explained by pure selfishness.

“These results cannot be explained by pure selfishness.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Typically, more than 60 percent of proposers give positive amounts, averaging 20 percent of the sum in dictator games.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Studies typically find that receivers decline if offered less than 20 percent in ultimatum games.

Many preference parameters are correlated.

“However, many preference parameters are correlated.”

People are willing to incur a cost in order to reward or punish others.

“More precisely, they are willing to incur a cost in order to reward or punish others.”

Like time preference, risk preference may depend on multiple parameters.

“Like time preference, risk preference may depend on multiple parameters.”

Some aspects of preferences seem to be multidimensional.

“Some aspects of preferences seem to be multidimensional.”

The expected utility form for risk preferences does not explain risk preferences over small stakes.

“As previously noted, the expected utility form for risk preferences does not explain risk preferences over small stakes, as argued by Rabin [2000].”

• cites Rabin [2000] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Loss aversion implies that people have state-dependent preferences.

“This would imply that people have state-dependent preferences, which can be expressed as”

Combined, these findings suggest that there is a unique characteristic that affects willingness to trust, distinct from altruism and risk aversion.

“Combined, these findings suggest that there is a unique characteristic that affects willingness to trust, distinct from altruism and risk aversion.”

This is the motive for hyperbolic discounting.

“This is the motive for hyperbolic discounting.”

The tradeoff between period v and period v+1 is not evaluated the same way from the perspective of period v-1 and period v, leading to time inconsistency.

“The consequence of these preferences is that the tradeoff between period v and period 1 v  is not evaluated the same way from the perspective of period 1 v  and period v , leading to time inconsistency.”

This is evidence against the standard intertemporally separable model of risk aversion.

“This is evidence against the standard intertemporally separable model of risk aversion.”

If subutility functions represent utility of lifetime wealth in different states, people should be approximately risk neutral for small stakes.

“If subutility functions represent utility of lifetime wealth in different states, people should be approximately risk neutral for small stakes.”

Estimated relationships from simple correlations or standardized regression coefficients do not control for other factors that may influence outcomes.

“Such estimated relationships do not control for other factors that may influence outcomes.”

Empirical associations are not a reliable basis for policy analysis.

“Empirical associations are not a reliable basis for policy analysis.”

Many studies do not address the question of causality, i.e., whether the measured trait causes rather than just predicts the outcome.

“Third, many studies do not address the question of causality, i.e., does the measured trait cause (rather than just predict) the outcome?”

If small-stakes risk aversion is explained by expected utility, the curvature of the utility of wealth function would have to be implausibly high.

“If this is explained by expected utility, then the curvature of the utility of wealth function would have to be implausibly high.”

Both the loss-aversion model and the inequality-aversion model share the feature that people do not have stable preferences over levels, but over differences.

“Both models share the feature that people do not have stable preferences over levels, but over differences.”

If outcomes are characterized by substantial measurement error, a low R2 for a predictor may still be consistent with a substantial effect of the predictor on means and quantiles.

“If outcomes are characterized by substantial measurement error, a low 2 R for a predictor may still be consistent with a substantial effect of the predictor on means and quantiles.”