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A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys
Open accessAbstract
Theory and research on sex differences in adjustment focus largely on parental, societal, and biological influences. However, it also is important to consider how peers contribute to girls' and boys' development. This article provides a critical review of sex differences in several peer relationship processes, including behavioral and social-cognitive styles, stress and coping, and relationship provisions. The authors present a speculative peer-socialization model based on this review in which the implications of these sex differences for girls' and boys' emotional and behavioral development are considered. Central to this model is the idea that sex-linked relationship processes have costs and benefits for girls' and boys' adjustment. Finally, the authors present recent research testing certain model components and propose approaches for testing understudied aspects of the model.
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“Adolescence also is marked by an increase in the frequency and emotional intimacy of dyadic peer experiences, with both best friendships and emerging romantic relationships occupying more of adolescents’ attention and interest (Rose & Rudolph 2006, Steinberg & Morris 2001).”
From Adolescent Suicide as a Failure of Acute Stress-Response Systems. (2019) · cites this paper as Rose & Rudolph 2006
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“which is surprising considering the well-established sex differences in the prevalence and severity of depression and anxiety (Rose and Rudolph 2006).”
From Risk and protective factors for prospective changes in adolescent mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic (2021) · cites this paper as Rose and Rudolph 2006
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“This may be particularly important for adolescent girls' because their friendships are characterized by greater levels of intimacy and emotional support (Rose & Rudolph, 2006; Rose, 2002).”
From Adolescents' longitudinal trajectories of mental health and loneliness: The impact of COVID‐19 school closures (2022) · cites this paper as Rose & Rudolph, 2006
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“Fear and anxiety emerge early in development (e.g., separation anxiety, stranger anxiety around 8 monthsof-age) and, as children mature, parents and peers view these emotions as more acceptable for girls than boys [35, 39].”
From Co-Development of Anxious Solitude and Social Anxiety Symptoms from Middle Childhood Through Early Adolescence: Increased Transactions After the Middle School Transition (2026) · cites this paper as [39]
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“Interpersonal stressors occur in great abundance during this life stage (23)—a byproduct of navigating puberty (41), fostering close friendships (42), exploring romantic relationships (43), and increasingly, using social media (44).”
From Neural correlates associated with suicide and nonsuicidal self-injury in youth (2021) · cites this paper as [42]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Rose, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Missouri (US)
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2006-01
- Volume
- 132
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 98-131
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- PMC
- PMC3160171
- OpenAlex
- W1971560413
- Cited by
- 2,517
- References
- 251
- Citations by year
- 2026: 167 · 2025: 173 · 2024: 107 · 2023: 130 · 2022: 154 · 2021: 180 · 2020: 181 · 2019: 161 · 2018: 168 · 2017: 133 · 2016: 152 · 2015: 140 · 2014: 132 · 2013: 127 · 2012: 102
- FWCI
- 7.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 59711, R01MH059711, R03MH063753, MH 63753-01)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Keywords
- sex differences, peer relationships, peer socialization, emotional development, behavioral development, adjustment, stress coping, gender differences in development
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Child, Child Behavior, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Male, Peer Group, Personality Development, Sex Factors, Social Behavior, Social Environment
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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