Risk and protective factors for prospective changes in adolescent mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A Chinese two-wave study detected no reliable shifts in depression, anxiety, or stress across its observation window.

“One study surveyed 1738 Chinese participants at two time points following the commencement of the pandemic and found no significant changes across time in depression, anxiety and stress over the study period (Wang et al. 2020).”

• cites Wang et al. 2020 sourceDisputed

  Methods §2.1 describes a cross-sectional survey, and Results §3.2 reports 1,210 completed questionnaires—not 1,738 participants surveyed twice. The Discussion explicitly says the authors could not conduct a prospective study of the same participants, so this paper cannot establish whether depression, anxiety, or stress changed over time. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Within that sample, adolescents and young adults aged 12-21 saw COVID-19 as more impactful than adults aged 50-59.

“However, there was some indication that younger people (aged 12–21 years) perceived the impact of COVID-19 to be greater than older adults (aged 50–59 years).”

• cites Wang et al. 2020 sourceDisputed

  Section 3.3 (page unavailable) says age was not associated with psychological-impact scores. It reports higher scores for students than employed respondents, but does not find that people aged 12–21 experienced greater impact than those aged 50–59. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

During adolescence, emotionality is heightened by neural changes while self-regulation remains underdeveloped.

“This is due in part, to the physical and chemical changes occurring in the brain from early adolescence, which result in a ‘neural mismatch’ whereby emotionality is heightened in response to real and/or perceived stressors (Bailen et al. 2019), yet the self-regulatory system required to manage these emotions remains largely underdeveloped until early adulthood (Somerville et al. 2010).”

• cites Bailen et al. 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Somerville et al. 2010 sourcePartly supported

  In “Brain mechanisms of reduced top-down control over responses to salient cues in adolescents” (page not provided), the paper says prefrontal regulatory control remains relatively immature during adolescence compared with adulthood. It does not establish that the self-regulatory system remains largely underdeveloped until early adulthood, the specific endpoint attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Lockdown measures intended to curb COVID-19 produced broad social isolation, with potentially serious effects on mental health.

“Government restrictions put in place to slow the spread of the virus have led to widespread social isolation, which can have profound consequences for mental health (Brooks et al. 2020).”

• cites Brooks et al. 2020 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Social sensitivity and peer importance increase markedly in adolescence, with friends becoming the main source of interaction and influence.

“Another defining characteristic of adolescence is the marked increase in social sensitivity and the importance of peers (Somerville 2013). As adolescents strive for independence from their parents, the time spent with peers increases dramatically, and for the first time, friends rather than parents become the primary source of interaction and influence (Meuwese et al. 2017).”

• cites Somerville 2013 sourceSupported
• cites Meuwese et al. 2017 sourcePartly supported

  The paper’s introductory passage (indexed under Abstract; page unavailable) says adolescents spend increasingly more time with peers and have greater social exposure to friends than in early childhood. It does not say that this increase is dramatic, link it to independence from parents, or establish that friends become the primary source of interaction and influence rather than parents. The separate statement about social sensitivity is cited to Somerville, not to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In the same Chinese sample, thinking the virus spread easily and seeing more health media both correlated with depression and/or anxiety at each wave.

“Beliefs about the ease of virus transmission and increased media exposure to health information about COVID-19 were significantly associated with depression and/or anxiety at both time points.”

• cites Wang et al. 2020 sourcePartly supported

  Section 3.10 (page not provided) reports associations between requests for COVID-19 health information and lower anxiety or depression scores. But the Methods describe one survey from 31 January to 2 February 2020, not two waves; the cited results do not establish associations at both time points, or an association for beliefs about how easily the virus spreads. Requests for information are also not the same as increased media exposure. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Across 13 studies of healthcare staff, pooled estimates showed 23.2% with raised COVID-19 anxiety, 22.8% with depression, and 38.9% with insomnia.

“A meta-analysis of 13 studies of mental health among healthcare workers found that almost a quarter exhibited elevated COVID-19 related symptoms of anxiety (23.2%) and depression (22.8%), and more than a third (38.9%) experienced problems with insomnia (Pappa et al. 2020).”

• cites Pappa et al. 2020 sourcePartly supported

  The Results report 13 included studies, with pooled anxiety prevalence of 23.21% and depression prevalence of 22.8%. The Results > Insomnia prevalence section instead reports 34.32%, not 38.9%; only five of the 13 studies contributed insomnia data. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Chinese adolescents showed elevated depression and anxiety at the pandemic peak, but boys and those exercising often had lower scores.

“Another study also found high levels of depression and anxiety in Chinese adolescents during the peak of the pandemic, although lower levels were reported among males and youth that regularly engaged in exercise (Chen et al. 2020).”

• cites Chen et al. 2020 sourcePartly supported

  The study’s results (page not provided) report depression and anxiety cases among adolescents surveyed in Guiyang, China, in April 2020. Table 1 shows lower rates of both conditions among males and adolescents reporting regular physical exercise. The paper does not establish that the survey occurred at the pandemic’s peak or report lower mean symptom scores for those groups. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In a Chinese sample of 1210 people, over 50% described COVID-19's effect on their mental health as moderate or severe.

“research conducted among 1210 respondents during the early stages of the crisis in China found that more than half (53.8%) rated the negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on their psychological health as moderate to severe (Wang et al. 2020).”

• cites Wang et al. 2020 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The same study found protective effects for preventive behaviors, following stay-at-home rules, and believing one was unlikely to catch or die from COVID-19.

“In contrast, taking precautionary measures to avoid transmission (e.g., regular handwashing), complying with the stay-at-home orders, and low perceived likelihood of contracting and dying from COVID-19 were all found to be protective.”

• cites Wang et al. 2020 sourcePartly supported

  Results §§3.8–3.9 (page unavailable) associate handwashing and other precautions with lower psychological distress, and low perceived likelihood of infection with lower stress and anxiety. They also associate low perceived likelihood of surviving infection with higher stress. But the paper reports how long respondents stayed home, not that complying with stay-at-home orders was psychologically protective; it also finds higher perceived likelihood of infection associated with a lower psychological-impact score. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A Chinese study found that rises in generalized anxiety tied to COVID-19 were larger among those younger than 35 than among older groups.

“A second study in China reported COVID-19 related increases in generalized anxiety, which were found to be more pronounced in younger people (<35 years) compared to older age groups (Huang and Zhao 2020).”

• cites Huang and Zhao 2020 sourcePartly supported

  The Results report that participants under 35 were more likely to have GAD during the outbreak than those 35 and older (adjusted odds ratio 1.65). That supports the age-group comparison, but not a comparison of increases: the Discussion says the cross-sectional study could not assess participants’ psychological conditions before the outbreak. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Adolescents left alone at home all day reported significantly higher levels of depression and anxiety than those who were accompanied by a parent or relative.

“The importance of feeling socially connected during the pandemic has been demonstrated previously when it was found that adolescents left alone at home all day reported significantly higher levels of depression and anxiety than those who were accompanied by a parent or relative (Chen et al. 2020).”

• cites Chen et al. 2020 sourcePartly supported

  The Results table (Table 1) reports significantly higher percentages of depression and anxiety among adolescents not accompanied on a workday, and the discussion describes them as more likely to be depressed and anxious. The paper does not specify that the companion was a parent or relative, or establish that the adolescents were alone all day. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Adults expressed the greatest concern over family members contracting COVID-19.

“these findings contrast with research in adults, as adults expressed the greatest concern over family members contracting COVID-19 (Wang et al. 2020).”

• cites Wang et al. 2020 sourcePartly supported

  Results §3.8 reports that 75.2% of respondents worried about other family members contracting COVID-19, compared with 50.9% who worried about a child under 16. It does not establish that family infection was their greatest concern overall; the reported comparisons do not cover every concern. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Previous research found an association between taking precautionary measures to avoid contracting the virus and lower levels of depression and anxiety.

“This is consistent with previous research which also found an association between that taking precautionary measures (e.g., staying at home, wearing a mask) to avoid contracting the virus and lower levels of depression and anxiety (Wang et al. 2020).”

• cites Wang et al. 2020 sourcePartly supported

  Results §3.9 reports that wearing masks was associated with lower anxiety and depression scores, and the Discussion describes similar associations for several precautionary measures. The paper reports that most respondents stayed at home to avoid COVID-19, but does not report that staying home was associated with lower anxiety or depression. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A recent study in China found that greater depression and anxiety were associated with exposure to radio reports around COVID-19, but the same effect was not found in relation to television and internet reports.

“A recent study in China found that although greater depression and anxiety were associated with exposure to radio reports around COVID-19, the same effect was not found in relation to television and internet reports (Wang et al. 2020).”

• cites Wang et al. 2020 sourceCould not verify

  Results §3.7 (page unavailable) says the Internet was the most common source of COVID-19 health information, but does not link any reporting channel to depression or anxiety. Searches for radio and television found no comparison of their associations with those outcomes. (LLM, conf=0.74)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some research suggests that associations between media exposure and internalizing distress are nuanced.

“Although there is no clear explanation for the contradictory findings between the current and previous studies, some research suggests that associations between media exposure and internalizing distress are nuanced (Wang et al. 2020).”

• cites Wang et al. 2020 sourcePartly supported

  Results §3.7 and the Discussion (page not provided) link satisfaction with COVID-19 health information to psychological distress and report that the Internet was the primary information channel. The Discussion also links particular types of information to lower stress or anxiety, consistent with a nuanced relationship. But the paper does not report an association between the amount or frequency of media exposure and distress. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

The current findings are broadly consistent with previous findings in that social media posts about COVID-19 were not associated with changes in mental health, whereas reading and watching media reports were positively related to good mental health.

“These findings are broadly consistent with those found in the current study in that social media posts about COVID-19 were not associated with changes in mental health, whereas reading and watching media reports were positively related to good mental health.”

• cites Wang et al. 2020 sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The quote only partly states this claim.

Following stay-at-home rules was protective against mental health problems during lockdown.

“adherence to stay-at-home orders and feeling socially connected during the COVID-19 lockdown protected against poor mental health”

The quote only partly states this claim.

Sex moderated the change in anxiety from T1 to T2, with girls showing greater increases.

“which was particularly pronounced among girls.”

• Also stated in: § Potential Moderating Factors · plain

  “4.19 | 0.017 | 2.18 | 1.81 (246) | 0.041”

The quote only partly states this claim.

Sex moderated the change in depressive symptoms from T1 to T2, with girls showing greater increases.

“which was particularly pronounced among girls.”

• Also stated in: § Potential Moderating Factors · plain

  “Sex | 9.00 | 0.035 | 2.18 | 6.64 (246) | 0.003”

May combine two claims.

Frequency of reading posts about COVID-19 on social media had no significant effect on changes in depressive symptoms, anxiety, or life satisfaction.

“The frequency of reading posts about COVID-19 on social media had no significant effect on changes in depressive symptoms, anxiety or life satisfaction.”

May combine two claims.

Those perceiving high levels of social connection during COVID-19 reported significantly fewer depressive symptoms and anxiety, and significantly more life satisfaction from T1 to T2 than those feeling socially disconnected.

“Those perceiving high levels of social connection during COVID-19 reported significantly fewer depressive symptoms and anxiety, and significantly more life satisfaction from T1 to T2 than those feeling socially disconnected during the lockdown period.”

May combine two claims.

Boys and girls were similar on average life satisfaction, exposure to COVID-19 related media, and attitudes toward the impact of COVID-19 on their schooling.

“Boys and girls were more similar on average levels of life satisfaction, exposure to COVID-19 related media, and attitudes toward the impact of COVID-19 on their schooling.”

May combine two claims.

The most commonly reported online learning problems were technology problems, not understanding learning materials, inability to ask the teacher to explain work, and motivation problems.

“The most commonly reported problems when learning online were related to technology problems, not understanding the learning materials, being unable to ask the teacher to explain the work, and problems with motivation.”

May combine two claims.

Experiencing difficulties with online learning moderated change in depressive symptoms, with those reporting problems having more depressive symptoms during COVID-19 than those reporting no problems.

“However, experiencing the abovementioned difficulties with online learning did significantly moderate change in depressive symptoms, with those who experienced problems reporting significantly more depressive symptoms during COVID-19, compared to those who experienced no problems with online learning.”

May combine two claims.

Adolescents were not overly concerned with the impact that COVID-19 was having on their education, nor was this related to any of the mental health outcomes examined.

“The current results also indicated that adolescents were not overly concerned with the impact that COVID-19 was having on their education, nor was this related to any of the mental health outcomes examined.”

May combine two claims.

COVID-19 related distress and feeling socially disconnected were most strongly related to all mental health symptoms, and were significantly associated with viewing posts about COVID-19 on social media, less motivation to study, greater perceived negative impact on schooling, and greater conflict with siblings.

“COVID-19 related distress and feeling socially disconnected from others were most strongly related to all mental health symptoms, as well as being significantly associated with viewing posts about COVID-19 on social media, less motivation to study, a greater perceived negative impact on schooling, and greater conflict with siblings.”

May combine two claims.

Although half of the sample reported an increase in conflict with siblings, this was not associated with changes to their mental health during the lockdown period.

“This possibility is further supported by the finding that although half of the current sample reported an increase in conflict with their siblings, this was not associated with changes to their mental health during the lockdown period.”

May combine two claims.

Girls reported more symptoms of depression and anxiety at both time points, whereas boys reported more familial conflict during the lockdown.

“As expected, on average girls reported more symptoms of depression and anxiety at both time points, whereas boys reported more familial conflict during the lockdown period.”

May combine two claims.

Adolescents' greatest concerns during the COVID-19 crisis were around the disruption to their social interactions and activities, whereas concerns around contracting or getting ill from the virus were very low.

“Consistent with theory highlighting the importance of peers during the adolescent period, the results showed that adolescents’ greatest concerns during the COVID-19 crisis were around the disruption to their social interactions and activities, whereas concerns around contracting or getting ill from the virus were very low.”

May combine two claims.

Learning exclusively online did not appear to impact adolescents' mental health, whereas difficulties encountered during online learning did.

“Finally, and encouragingly, learning exclusively online did not appear to impact adolescents’ mental health, whereas difficulties encountered during online learning did.”

May combine two claims.

Greater exposure to traditional media, adherence to government restrictions, and feeling socially connected with others was associated with less distress.

“In contrast, greater exposure to traditional media, adherence to government restrictions, and feeling socially connected with others was associated with less distress.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In that survey, depression was higher with COVID-19 worries, reduced schoolwork time, and more friend time, but lower with more family time.

“Further, COVID-19 related concerns, spending less time on schoolwork and more time with friends was positively associated with depression, whereas spending more time with family was negatively associated.”

• cites Ellis et al. 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Internalizing disorders have a typical median onset age of 13 to 19 years and have been called disorders of adolescence.

“In fact, this particular subset of internalizing disorders has previously been referred to as “disorders of adolescence” due to their typical median onset age of 13 to 19 years (Rapee et al. 2019).”

• cites Rapee et al. 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

It is well documented that depression and anxiety differ by sex in how common and severe they are.

“which is surprising considering the well-established sex differences in the prevalence and severity of depression and anxiety (Rose and Rudolph 2006).”

• cites Rose and Rudolph 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Adolescent peer rejection or conflict can damage self-concept and self-worth and raise anxiety and depression symptoms, whereas supportive peer ties lower risk for both conditions.

“Thus, negative peer interactions during this important developmental window can lead to poor self-concept, a low sense of worth, and subsequent increases in symptoms of anxiety and depression, whereas positive peer relationships can provide social and emotional support, which are known to protect against the risk of both depression and anxiety (La Greca and Harrison 2005).”

• cites Connell and Wellborn 1991Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites La Greca and Harrison 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A Canadian youth sample, looking back, reported worse mental health-especially low mood/depression and anxiety-from three months pre-pandemic to three weeks in.

“In a study focused on youth, retrospective reports of mental health symptoms three months prior to the pandemic were compared to those three weeks into the pandemic among 622 Canadian adolescents and young adults (Hawke et al. 2020). Participants perceived reductions in their mental health across the period, particularly in depression/low mood and anxiety.”

• cites Hawke et al. 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

That survey found social media use strengthened the link between COVID-19 worries and depression; the heaviest users had the highest depression.

“Social media use moderated the association between COVID-19 concerns and depression, with those reporting high levels of social media use also reporting the most depression.”

• cites Ellis et al. 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Loneliness in that survey rose with COVID-19 worries and fell with more family time, friend time, and exercise.

“COVID-19 related concerns were also positively associated with loneliness, while spending more time with family and friends, and engaging in more physical activity, was negatively associated.”

• cites Ellis et al. 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

From early adolescence, depression and anxiety tend to rise while life satisfaction tends to fall.

“Finally, as depression and anxiety are known to increase, and life satisfaction to decrease, from early adolescence onward (Goldbeck et al. 2007; Rapee et al. 2019), it is important to ensure that any potential prospective changes in mental health symptoms during COVID-19 are not simply due to age effects.”

• cites Goldbeck et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Rapee et al. 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Among 1054 Canadian teens, schooling effects ranked first, then broad COVID-19 worries, then disconnection from friends.

“Finally, a survey of 1054 Canadian adolescents (Mage = 16.68) found that adolescents were most concerned about the impact on their schooling, followed by general concerns about the COVID-19 crisis, and not feeling connected to friends (Ellis et al. 2020).”

• cites Ellis et al. 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Prospective collection of these data allows stronger conclusions to be drawn that go beyond perceived attributions of participants.

“More importantly, the prospective collection of these data allows stronger conclusions to be drawn, that go beyond the perceived attributions of participants.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The depressive symptoms measure had good reliability in this sample (α = 0.91 at T1 and 0.93 at T2).

“The reliability of the measure was good in the current sample (α = 0.91 at T1 and 0.93 at T2).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

All other variables had less than 1% missing data except family conflict variables, which had non-responses of 3.2% for mother, 9.7% for father, and 7.7% for siblings.

“All other variables contained less than 1% missing data with the exception of the family conflict variables which had a “not applicable option” for family members not living within the same household. This resulted in non-responses of 3.2% for mother, 9.7% for father, and 7.7% for siblings.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The prevalence of internalizing disorders increases from early to mid-adolescence.

“Previous research has also shown that the prevalence of internalizing disorders increases from early to mid-adolescence (Goldbeck et al. 2007).”

• cites Goldbeck et al. 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The life satisfaction measure had high internal consistency in this sample (α = 0.91 at T1 and 0.92 at T2).

“The Cronbach’s alphas in the current study were high (α = 0.91 at T1 and 0.92 at T2).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Most variables were normally distributed with no obvious skewness (−0.81 to 1.72), although kurtosis for depressive symptoms at T1 (2.21) and traditional media exposure at T2 (3.76) was slightly above recommended values.

“As shown in Table 1, most variables were normally distributed with no obvious skewedness (−0.81 to 1.72), although the kurtosis of values of depressive symptoms at T1 (2.21) and exposure to traditional media at T2 (3.76) fell slightly above the recommended values of plus or minus two (Gravetter et al. 2020).”

• cites Gravetter et al. 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Of 467 invited adolescents, 248 (53%) returned completed responses.

“Of the 467 adolescents invited to participate in the COVID-19 survey, 248 (53%) returned completed responses and thus comprised the current sample.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Pairwise deletion was used for all analyses because missing data were a small percentage.

“Due to the small percentage of missing data, all analyses were conducted using pairwise deletion.”

May combine two claims.

The current study demonstrates that living with restrictions and concerns surrounding COVID-19 are related to increases in emotional distress and decreases in life satisfaction.

“The current study strengthens and builds upon this literature by demonstrating that living with the restrictions and concerns surrounding COVID-19 are related to not only increases in emotional distress but also with decreases in life satisfaction.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Generalized Anxiety subscale had acceptable internal consistency in this sample (α = 0.86 at T1 and 0.87 at T2).

“The Cronbach’s alphas in the current study were acceptable (α = 0.86 at T1 and 0.87 at T2).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The newly developed COVID-19 distress scale had a Cronbach's alpha of 0.91.

“The Cronbach’s alpha for the new scale was 0.91.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The difference in educational concerns may be because earlier research was carried out immediately following the switch to online learning whereas the current study assessed concerns two months after the initial change, providing students with the opportunity to adapt.

“This may be because the earlier research was carried out immediately following the switch to online learning whereas the current study assessed concerns two months after the initial change, providing students with the opportunity to adapt and settle into their new learning environment.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Previous work found that one of adolescents' most pressing COVID-19 related worries was the detriment to their education.

“These findings are inconsistent with previous work which found that one of adolescents’ most pressing COVID-19 related worries was the detriment to their education (Ellis et al. 2020).”

• cites Ellis et al. 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The observed increase in mental health symptoms from T1 to T2 cannot be simply explained by developmental differences in internalizing disorders, and may instead be due to changing social, educational and economic climate as a result of COVID-19.

“However, the current study did not find any moderating effect of age, suggesting that the observed increase in mental health symptoms from T1 to T2 cannot be simply explained by these developmental differences, and may instead be due to the changing social, educational and economic climate as a result of COVID-19.”

May combine two claims.

A large proportion of adolescents are coping well with the impact of the pandemic, at least in the early stages, and most are showing minimal negative impact.

“Clearly a large proportion of adolescents are coping well with the impact of the pandemic, at least in the early stages, and most are showing minimal negative impact.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Data coverage for T1 and T2 mental health variables was 99.6% to 100%.

“Data coverage for T1 and T2 mental health variables was 99.6% to 100%, respectively.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Adolescents can be resilient and adaptive when needed, as long as they are equipped with the necessary tools and support they require.

“This demonstrates that adolescents can be resilient and adaptive when needed, as long as they are equipped with the necessary tools and support they require.”

May combine two claims.

This research contributes to existing literature by demonstrating longitudinal declines in the mental health of adolescents, especially among girls, when comparing pre-pandemic to intra-pandemic levels.

“Thus, this research contributes to the existing literature by demonstrating longitudinal declines in the mental health of adolescents, especially among girls, when comparing pre-pandemic to intra-pandemic levels.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The difference in educational concerns may also be due to the younger age of the current cohort relative to those in the earlier study.

“It may also be due to the younger age of the current cohort relative to those in the earlier study, most of whom were in senior school—a time when grades are important in determining acceptance into university and future occupational opportunities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

The causal relationship between adherence and mental health may flow in either direction.

“As with all of the current results, the casual relationship may flow in either direction.”

May combine two claims.

The sample was predominately of Caucasian ethnicity, included participants within a restricted age range, and data were collected within a single country (Australia).

“The sample was predominately of Caucasian ethnicity and included participants within a restricted age range, and perhaps most importantly for a study of the impacts of COVID-19, data were collected within a single country (Australia)”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The sample used in the current study was relatively small and demographically restricted.

“Finally, the sample used in the current study was relatively small and demographically restricted.”

May combine two claims.

Most of the online learning difficulties reported were modifiable and related to problems concerning technology, the understanding of learning materials, and being unable to ask the teacher for clarification.

“Most of the online learning difficulties reported were modifiable and related to problems concerning technology, the understanding of learning materials, and being unable to ask the teacher for clarification.”