Cited by 1,502Mental Health via WritingPsychotherapy Techniques and ApplicationsAttachment and Relationship Dynamics

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Experimental disclosure and its moderators: A meta-analysis.

Frattaroli, Joanne·2006·Psychological Bulletin

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Abstract

Disclosing information, thoughts, and feelings about personal and meaningful topics (experimental disclosure) is purported to have various health and psychological consequences (e.g., J. W. Pennebaker, 1993). Although the results of 2 small meta-analyses (P. G. Frisina, J. C. Borod, & S. J. Lepore, 2004; J. M. Smyth, 1998) suggest that experimental disclosure has a positive and significant effect, both used a fixed effects approach, limiting generalizability. Also, a plethora of studies on experimental disclosure have been completed that were not included in the previous analyses. One hundred forty-six randomized studies of experimental disclosure were collected and included in the present meta-analysis. Results of random effects analyses indicate that experimental disclosure is effective, with a positive and significant average r-effect size of .075. In addition, a number of moderators were identified.

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Background
Implementing an Expressive Writing Study in a Cancer Clinic
Morgan, N. P., Graves, K. D., Poggi, E. A., & Cheson, B. D. (2008) · The Oncologist · doi:10.1634/theoncologist.2007-0147 · Cited by 46
Expressive writing intervention promotes resilience among juvenile justice-involved youth
Greenbaum, C. A., & Javdani, S. (2016) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.11.034 · Cited by 46
Self-Disclosure Here and Now: Combining Retrospective Perceived Assessment With Dynamic Behavioral Measures
Kreiner, H., & Levi‐Belz, Y. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00558 · Cited by 53
“…stable SD properties will provide a more comprehensive understanding of SD. SD is involved in many aspects of life such as the development of intimate relationships and coping with stress and traumatic events (for reviews see Kennedy-Moore and Watson, 2001; Frisina et al., 2004; Frattaroli, 2006).”
Background
A proposed model of the development of suicidal ideations
Gvion, Y., Horesh, N., Levi‐Belz, Y., & Apter, A. (2014) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.09.019 · Cited by 51
A Newly Developed Online Peer Support Community for Depression (Depression Connect): Qualitative Study
Smit, D., Vrijsen, J. N., Groeneweg, B. F., Vellinga‐Dings, A., Peelen, J., & Spijker, J. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/25917 · Cited by 55
“The observed association between posting and emotional growth or emotion regulation (ie, increasing self-knowledge through reflection on coping processes) echoes the role of expressive writing in reducing psychological distress [27,68].”
How Enrichment Affects Exploration Trade-Offs in Rats: Implications for Welfare and Well-Being
Franks, B., Champagne, F. A., & Higgins, E. T. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0083578 · Cited by 47
“Nonhuman animal research has indicated that learning and opportunities to explore enhance welfare [31,32], which parallels human research indicating that self exploration and knowledge improve well-being [6,33,34].”
Background
Can’t get it out of my head: Age differences in affective responsiveness vary with preoccupation and elapsed time after daily hassles.
Wrzus, C., Luong, G., Wagner, G. G., & Riediger, M. (2014) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000019 · Cited by 48
“Perhaps younger participants reported being preoccupied with a prior hassle, when they shared their experience with somebody, and therefore experienced lower levels of deactivating negative affect (Frattaroli, 2006; Pennebaker, 1997).”
Background
To share, or not to share? Examining the emotional consequences of social sharing in the case of anger and sadness.
Brans, K., Mechelen, I. V., Rimé, B., & Verduyn, P. (2014) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0037604 · Cited by 45
Changing Behavior Using Self-Determination Theory
Hagger, M. S., Hankonen, N. E., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Ryan, R. M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.008 · Cited by 67
COVID-19’s impact on tourism: will compensatory travel intention appear?
Zhang, Y., Lingyi, M., Peixue, L., Lu, Y., & Zhang, J. (2021) · Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research · doi:10.1080/10941665.2021.1908383 · Cited by 45
“Expressing repressed thoughts and emotions can reduce stress and improve an individual’s physical and mental health (Frattaroli, 2006).”
Background
An Investigation of the Efficacy of Online Expressive Writing for Trauma-Related Psychological Distress in Hispanic Individuals
Hirai, M., Skidmore, S. T., Clum, G. A., & Dolma, S. (2012) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2012.04.006 · Cited by 45
“56) than those in a recent meta-analysis in which expressive writing groups were compared to groups writing about a neutral event or a wait-list group (average Cohen's d=0.15; Frattaroli, 2006).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Facebook Therapy? Why Do People Share Self-Relevant Content Online?Preprint
Berger, J. A., & Buechel, E. C. (2012) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2013148 · Cited by 45
Self-defining Memories - Narrative Features in Relation to Adaptive and Maladaptive Personality Traits (Replication and Extension of Blagov & Singer, 2004).
Blagov, P., Singer, J., Oost, K., & Goodman, J. A. (2021) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12677 · Cited by 37
“It may also help to account for the health benefits from disclosing emotional, personal material (Frattaroli, 2006).”
Linguistic Analysis of Communication in Therapist-Assisted Internet-Delivered Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Dirkse, D., Hadjistavropoulos, H. D., Hesser, H., & Barak, A. (2014) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2014.952773 · Cited by 43
“Given that past research has demonstrated psychological and physical benefits associated with expressive writing (Frattaroli, 2006), the ways in which patients express themselves and communicate with their therapists may have an added positive or negative impact on their psychological functioning.”
Background
The effect of expressive writing on the error‐related negativity among individuals with chronic worry
Schroder, H. S., Moran, T. P., & Moser, J. S. (2017) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.12990 · Cited by 49
Does narrative writing instruction enhance the benefits of expressive writing?
Danoff‐Burg, S., Mosher, C. E., Seawell, A. H., & Agee, J. D. (2009) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615800903191137 · Cited by 44
The effectiveness of interactive journaling in reducing recidivism among substance-dependent jail inmates
Proctor, S. L., Hoffmann, N. G., & Allison, S. (2012) · International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology · doi:10.1177/0306624x11399274 · Cited by 43
“The combination of emotional and cognitive expression used in interactive journaling has been shown to be more effective than cognitive processing alone in regard to behavior change (Frattaroli, 2006).”
Background
Processing coping methods in expressive essays about stressful experiences: Predictors of health benefit
Hoyt, M. A., Austenfeld, J. L., & Stanton, A. L. (2014) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105314550347 · Cited by 42
“…particularly when circumstances are uncontrollable, within an interpersonal environment supportive of emotional expression, and when an individual is dispositionally inclined toward emotional experiencing and expression (Frattaroli, 2006; Pennebaker and Chung, 2011; Stanton and Low, 2012).”
Background
Drawing to distract: Examining the psychological benefits of drawing over time.
Drake, J. E., Hastedt, I., & James, C. (2016) · Psychology of Aesthetics Creativity and the Arts · doi:10.1037/aca0000064 · Cited by 22
“Prior research has indicated that 4 days and 15 min is an optimal number of sessions and duration for the expressive writing paradigms (Frattaroli, 2006).”
Background
The event-specific benefits of writing about a difficult life experience
Stapleton, C. M., Zhang, H., & Berman, J. S. (2021) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.2089 · Cited by 45
“Overall, meta-analysis reviews have indicated a small to medium effect of expressive writing on psychological outcomes (Frattaroli, 2006; Pavlacic et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluential
Emotions while writing about emotional and non-emotional topics
D’Mello, S. K., & Mills, C. (2013) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-013-9358-1 · Cited by 46
“…suggest that emotions operate throughout the writing process, beyond writing about personal emotional experiences (e.g., Baker and Guttfreund 1993; Dunn and Schweitzer 2005; Strack et al. 1985) and emotional traumas (e.g., Barclay and Skarlicki 2009; Campbell and Pennebaker 2003; Frattaroli 2006).”
Background
Health and Physiological Effects of an Emotional Disclosure Intervention Adapted for Application at Home: A Randomized Clinical Trial in Rheumatoid Arthritis
van Middendorp, H., Geenen, R., Sorbi, M. J., van Doornen, L. J. P., & Bijlsma, J. W. J. (2009) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000206868 · Cited by 43
The Enhancement of Natural Resilience in Trauma Interventions
Burton, M. S., Cooper, A. A., Feeny, N. C., & Zoellner, L. A. (2015) · Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy · doi:10.1007/s10879-015-9302-7 · Cited by 51
“In general, trauma disclosure appears to have a positive effect on psychological health and functioning (Frattaroli 2006).”
Background
Expressive Writing Can Impede Emotional Recovery Following Marital Separation
Sbarra, D. A., Boals, A., Mason, A. E., Larson, G. M., & Mehl, M. R. (2013) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702612469801 · Cited by 43
“Second, the analyses reported here rely exclusively on self-report, and it is well known that the EW paradigm produces benefits in other areas of functioning, including objective health indices and physiological responding (Frattaroli, 2006).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
The relationship between perceived injustice and the working alliance: a cross-sectional study of patients with persistent pain attending multidisciplinary rehabilitation
Scott, W., Milioto, M., Trost, Z., & Sullivan, M. J. L. (2016) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.3109/09638288.2015.1129444 · Cited by 48
“Validation techniques entail empathic reflection of both the content and emotional tone of patients’ experiences without judgment or imposition of clinicians’ own agenda.[54,55] Thus, in addition to acknowledging patients’ pain intensity and functional disability, recognition and reflection of the emotional impact of…”
Background
Post traumatic stress disorder
Yule, W., & Smith, P. A. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118381953.ch59 · Cited by 44
Optimizing the Perceived Benefits and Health Outcomes of Writing about Traumatic Life Events
Andersson, M. A., & Conley, C. S. (2012) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.2423 · Cited by 42

Authors: Frattaroli, J.
Affiliations: University of California, Riverside (US)
Corresponding author: Frattaroli, Joanne
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2006
Volume: 132
Issue: 6
Pages: 823-865
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.823
OpenAlex: W2031791082
Cited by: 1,502
References: 157
Citations by year: 2026: 61 · 2025: 40 · 2024: 46 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 90 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 142 · 2019: 82 · 2018: 123 · 2017: 52 · 2016: 124 · 2015: 88 · 2014: 85 · 2013: 73 · 2012: 91
FWCI: 52.64
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: University of California
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health via Writing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
Keywords: expressive writing, random effects models, effect size
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Attitude to Health, Female, Health Status, Humans, Life Change Events, Male, Mental Health, Self Disclosure, Time Factors, Writing, Expressed Emotion, Disclosure

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