Cited by 1,502Mental Health via WritingPsychotherapy Techniques and ApplicationsAttachment and Relationship Dynamics

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Experimental disclosure and its moderators: A meta-analysis.

Frattaroli, Joanne·2006·Psychological Bulletin

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Abstract

Disclosing information, thoughts, and feelings about personal and meaningful topics (experimental disclosure) is purported to have various health and psychological consequences (e.g., J. W. Pennebaker, 1993). Although the results of 2 small meta-analyses (P. G. Frisina, J. C. Borod, & S. J. Lepore, 2004; J. M. Smyth, 1998) suggest that experimental disclosure has a positive and significant effect, both used a fixed effects approach, limiting generalizability. Also, a plethora of studies on experimental disclosure have been completed that were not included in the previous analyses. One hundred forty-six randomized studies of experimental disclosure were collected and included in the present meta-analysis. Results of random effects analyses indicate that experimental disclosure is effective, with a positive and significant average r-effect size of .075. In addition, a number of moderators were identified.

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Emotion Reporting Using Electronic Diaries Reduces Anxiety Symptoms in Girls With Emotion Dysregulation
Thomassin, K., Morelen, D. M., & Suveg, C. M. (2012) · Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy · doi:10.1007/s10879-012-9205-9 · Cited by 17
“Theory (e.g., Esterling et al. 1999) and empirical research (e.g., Frattaroli 2006) suggest that electronic diaries, which require children to report on their emotional experiences, might encourage emotional processing and facilitate a reduction in symptoms of anxiety for children exhibiting…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Examining factors involved in stress-related working memory impairments: Independent or conditional effects?
Banks, J., Tartar, J. L., & Tamayo, B. A. (2015) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000096 · Cited by 17
Science Perspectives on Psychological
Nolen–Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2014) · Cited by 17
Emotion-focused training for emotion coaching – an intervention to reduce self-criticism
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“This was because several meta-analyses have showed that expressive writing not only helps the participant to process the experience in terms of emotions and cognitions but also has a beneficial effect on a range of social, behavioural, psychological, and health outcomes (e.g. Frattaroli, 2006).”
Background
Exploring Mental Health Issues through the Use of Blogs: A Scoping Review of the Research Evidence
Murphy, E., Donohue, G., & McCann, E. (2020) · Issues in Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1080/01612840.2019.1666326 · Cited by 18
“Writing, in particular about mental health difficulties, is found to have positive effects in the recovery process (Frattaroli, 2006; Haertl & Ero-Phillips, 2019).”
Background
Exposure‐Based Writing Therapies for Subthreshold and Clinical Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis
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Intergenerational narratives: How collective family stories Relate to adolescents’ emotional well-being
Fıvush, R. (2011) · Americanae (AECID Library) · Cited by 17
Expressive Talking Among Caregivers of Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant Survivors: Acceptability and Concurrent Subjective, Objective, and Physiologic Indicators of Emotion
Langer, S. L., Kelly, T. H., Storer, B. E., Hall, S. P., Lucas, H. G., & Syrjala, K. L. (2012) · Journal of Psychosocial Oncology · doi:10.1080/07347332.2012.664255 · Cited by 17
“If, as the meta-analytic data suggest (Frattaroli, 2006), mode is truly inconsequential, why not let participants choose the mode they feel most comfortable with, likely to be in line with their dispositional emotional style?”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Comparison of expressive writing after the terrorist attacks of September 11 th and March 11 th
Fernández, I., Paez, D., & Pennebaker, J. (2009) · Espacio Tiempo y Forma Serie I Prehistoria y Arqueología · Cited by 17
The Effects of Negative Emotion and Expressive Writing on Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms
Hoyt, T., & Yeater, E. A. (2011) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2011.30.6.549 · Cited by 17
Embodied Self-Care: Enhancing Awareness and Acceptance Through Mindfulness-Oriented Expressive Writing Self-Disclosure
Sultan, N. (2017) · Journal of Creativity in Mental Health · doi:10.1080/15401383.2017.1286277 · Cited by 23
“event, increase their ability to regulate their emotions, and improve their social connections (Frattaroli, 2006).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Do psychopathic traits impair autobiographical memory for emotional life experiences?
Lanciano, T., Curci, A., & Basile, P. (2018) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2018.1551493 · Cited by 18
“The expressive writing paradigm (Pennebaker & Beall, 1986) is an experimentally induced form of written disclosure with a wide range of psycho-physical benefits (Frattaroli, 2006).”
Background
Autobiographical Memory
Fıvush, R., & Graci, M. E. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.21046-8 · Cited by 19
Web-Based Benefit-Finding Writing for Adults with Type 1 or Type 2 Diabetes: Preliminary Randomized Controlled Trial
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“Results of EW studies are quite variable, and the effect sizes are often small [33,35].”
The Health Benefits of Autobiographical Writing: An Interdisciplinary Perspective
Valtonen, J. (2020) · Journal of Medical Humanities · doi:10.1007/s10912-020-09631-9 · Cited by 16
“Meta-analyses indicate that expressive writing is consistently associated with positive outcomes and clinically meaningful effect sizes across studies (Frattaroli 2006; Frisina, Borod and Lepore 2004; Smyth 1998; Travagin, Margola and Revenson 2015).”
Background
Effects of self-expressive writing as a therapeutic method to relieve stress among university students
Mohamed, N. H., Beckstein, A. S., Winship, G., Mou, T. A. K., Pang, N. T. P., & Relojo, D. (2023) · Journal of Poetry Therapy · doi:10.1080/08893675.2023.2174678 · Cited by 16
“This was not merely limited to positive, but also negative moods, as expressive writing clarified participants’ thoughts and improved moods positively (Frattaroli, 2006; Lestideau & Lavallee, 2007; Lynton & Salovey, 1997).”
Background
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“Indeed, the benefits of expressive writing may be limited to certain individuals (Frattaroli, 2006), such as people who are more comfortable with writing or conscious emotion expression; in contrast, the popularity of film may make it a more readily accessible treatment strategy for some…”
BackgroundInfluential
The WRITTEN-HEART study (expressive writing for heart healing): rationale and design of a randomized controlled clinical trial of expressive writing in coronary patients referred to residential cardiac rehabilitation
Manzoni, G. M., Castelnuovo, G., & Molinari, E. (2011) · Health and Quality of Life Outcomes · doi:10.1186/1477-7525-9-51 · Cited by 17
Finding Meaning in Written Emotional Expression by Family Caregivers of Persons With Dementia
Butcher, H. K., Gordon, J., Ko, J. W., Perkhounkova, Y., Cho, J. Y., Rinner, A., & Lutgendorf, S. K. (2016) · American Journal of Alzheimer s Disease & Other Dementias® · doi:10.1177/1533317516660611 · Cited by 18
“Three writing sessions were scheduled every other day (days 1, 3, and 5) in order to reduce the risk of fatigue and provide extra time to integrate and gain insight about their caregiving experience.(31,33) Participants completed posttesting on the sixth and/or seventh days following the first writing session and a mo…”
Background
Verbal Emotional Disclosure of Traumatic Experiences in Adolescents: The Role of Social Risk Factors
Pérez, S., Peñate, W., Bethencourt, J. M., & Fumero, A. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00372 · Cited by 16
“…etcetera); and the duration of disclosure These questions were developed according to the recommendations of systemic reviews and meta-analyses (Frattaroli, 2006), which indicated an increase in the effectiveness of emotional disclosure when it occurs repeatedly, and spending more time talking…”
BackgroundMethod
Let's Talk About It! Subjective and Objective Disclosures to Social Robots
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“Self-disclosure is involved in many aspects of life, including developing and sustaining intimate relationships, coping with stress and traumatic events, and eliciting help and support [6][7][12].”
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“Hundreds of experimental studies support this framework, finding that clinical and non-clinical populations obtain a range of benefits for weeks or months after writing, including improved psychological and physical health (Frattaroli, 2006).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Changing Behavior Using Social Identity Processes
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Exploring the process of writing about and sharing traumatic birth experiences online
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“A meta-analytic review of the impact of expressive writing (Frattaroli, 2006) found an overall significant positive effect (with a very small overall effect size of 0.075) of writing about emotional experiences.”
BackgroundInfluential
Level of processing modulates benefits of writing about stressful events: Comparing generic and specific recall
Vrielynck, N., Philippot, P., & Rimé, B. (2009) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930903172161 · Cited by 16
Tell Me a Story: The Creation of Narrative as a Mechanism of Psychological Recovery Following Marital Separation
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Thought Control Ability Moderates the Effect of Mind Wandering on Positive Affect via the Frontoparietal Control Network
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“Furthermore, each participant’s functional images were spatially normalized to the standard Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI) EPI template space, and we regressed out the signal of white matter, the cerebrospinal fluid signal and the Friston 24- parameter (Friston et al., 1996).”
Method
You Name It: Interpersonal Affect Labeling Diminishes Distress in Romantic Couples
Shamay‐Tsoory, S., & Levy‐Gigi, E. (2020) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2020.06.004 · Cited by 17
“…for emotion regulation (e.g., Levy-Gigi & Shamay-Tsoory, 2017; see Bishop et al., 2004, for review) and may diminish the levels of ambiguity and refine one's appraisals of that emotion (Frattaroli, 2005; Kircanski, Lieberman, & Craske, 2012; Lieberman et al., 2011; Pennebaker & Chung, 2011).”
Background
Relationships Between Cross-Cultural Adaption, Perceived Stress and Psychological Health Among International Undergraduate Students From a Medical University During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Moderated Mediation Model
Wang, X., Lu, L., Wang, X., Qu, M., Yuan, L., Gao, Y., & Pan, B. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.783210 · Cited by 15
“A meta-analysis examining experimental studies found that optimism was a significant moderator of the effects of stressors on psychological health, such that individuals with lower optimism typically showed the greatest benefit from the intervention (20).”
Background
Moral Injury and Suicide Ideation Among Combat Veterans
Levi‐Belz, Y., Shemesh, S., & Zerach, G. (2022) · Crisis · doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000849 · Cited by 16
Eliciting a User’s Preferences by the Self-Disclosure of Socially Assistive Robots in Local Households of Older Adults to Facilitate Verbal Human–Robot Interaction
Igarashi, T., Nihei, M., Inoue, T., Sugawara, I., & Kamata, M. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191811319 · Cited by 17
“Frattaroli conducted a meta-analysis of 146 randomized studies and found that self-disclosure had a positive effect on the well-being of those who disclosed their thoughts [11].”
Method
Prayer Coping, Disclosure of Trauma, and Mental Health Symptoms Among Recently Deployed United States Veterans of the Iraq and Afghanistan Conflicts
Tait, R., Currier, J. M., & Harris, J. I. (2014) · International Journal for the Psychology of Religion · doi:10.1080/10508619.2014.953896 · Cited by 15
“Much of the research to date exploring the benefits of sharing about one’s trauma has focused on written disclosure (Frattaroli, 2006) or systematically talking about one’s trauma within a therapeutic context (e.g., Foa, Rothbaum, Riggs, & Murdock, 1991).”
Background
Searching for connection—Finding resolution: A grounded theory analysis of writings of Korean American adopted adults.
Kim, O. M., Hynes, K. C., & Lee, R. M. (2017) · Asian American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1037/aap0000082 · Cited by 15
Feasibility and acceptability of expressive writing with postpartum women: a randomised controlled trial
Crawley, R. A., Ayers, S., Button, S., Thornton, A., Field, A. P., Lee, S., Eagle, A., Bradley, R., Moore, D., Gyte, G. M., et al. (2018) · BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth · doi:10.1186/s12884-018-1703-7 · Cited by 15
“The reported benefits were consistent with explanations for the benefits of expressive writing [9], such as helping women gain insight and understanding, see a different perspective, achieve closure, or finding it cathartic to express their feelings.”
Background

Authors: Frattaroli, J.
Affiliations: University of California, Riverside (US)
Corresponding author: Frattaroli, Joanne
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2006
Volume: 132
Issue: 6
Pages: 823-865
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.823
OpenAlex: W2031791082
Cited by: 1,502
References: 157
Citations by year: 2026: 61 · 2025: 40 · 2024: 46 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 90 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 142 · 2019: 82 · 2018: 123 · 2017: 52 · 2016: 124 · 2015: 88 · 2014: 85 · 2013: 73 · 2012: 91
FWCI: 52.64
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: University of California
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health via Writing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
Keywords: expressive writing, random effects models, effect size
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Attitude to Health, Female, Health Status, Humans, Life Change Events, Male, Mental Health, Self Disclosure, Time Factors, Writing, Expressed Emotion, Disclosure

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Experimental disclosure and its moderators: A meta-analysis.

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