Cited by 1,058Posttraumatic Stress Disorder ResearchChild Abuse and TraumaPsychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research

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Gender differences in posttraumatic stress disorder.

Olff, Miranda, Langeland, Willie, Draijer, Nel, Gersons, Berthold P. R.·2007·Psychological Bulletin

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Abstract

One of the most consistent findings in the epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the higher risk of this disorder in women. Explanations reviewed within a psychobiological model of PTSD suggest that women's higher PTSD risk may be due to the type of trauma they experience, their younger age at the time of trauma exposure, their stronger perceptions of threat and loss of control, higher levels of peri-traumatic dissociation, insufficient social support resources, and greater use of alcohol to manage trauma-related symptoms like intrusive memories and dissociation, as well as gender-specific acute psychobiological reactions to trauma. This review demonstrates the need for additional research of the gender differences in posttraumatic stress. Recommendations are made for clinical practice.

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“Beyond this, it has been suggested that appraisal is influenced by the individual’s sociodemographic characteristics (e.g., Olff et al., 2007), developmental stage (e.g., Pynoos et al., 1999), and prior experiences of trauma (e.g., Ehlers & Clark, 2000).”
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“…scheint sich hierbei aber nicht um eine generelle, sondern eher um eine spezifische Vulnerabilität von Frauen gegenüber interpersonellen Gewalterfahrungen zu handeln (Breslau 2002), die allerdings in komplexen psychosozialen und neurobiologischen Modellen analysiert werden muss (Olff et al. 2007).”
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The Quality of Life of Coronavirus Disease Survivors Living in Rural and Urban Area of Riau Province, Indonesia
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“In addition, differences in coping strategies between males and females may explain the gender differences in addressing such health issues [24].”
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Childhood Abuse, Body Shame, and Addictive Plastic Surgery
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“In consideration of why these sex differences in PTSD symptomatology exist, Olff and team suggest several hypotheses (95), including women’s: tendency towards dissociation at the time of/following a traumatic event; subjective appraisals of greater threat and loss of control in response to a traumatic event; limited a…”
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Traumatic in Israeli Youth Sample
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“Furthermore, one of the most consistent findings in trauma research is a higher risk of PTSD in women (cf. Olff et al., 2007; Tolin & Foa, 2006).”
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Hitting rock bottom? Resource loss as a predictor of alcoholism treatment completion
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“In addition, some gender differences may exist regarding both the perception of resource loss and gain (30) and their role in the development of the addiction and its suppression (31,32).”
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“This result was not only consistent with former studies revealing a higher level of PTSS among women (Olff et al. 2007; Tolin and Foa 2006), but also was in line with aforementioned studies on gender differences in psychological trauma and PTSD among PLHV (Machtinger et al.”
BackgroundResult
Sex-Specific Association Between High Traumatic Stress Exposure and Social Cognitive Functioning in Youths
Barzilay, R., White, L. K., Calkins, M. E., Moore, T. M., Young, J. F., Wolf, D. H., Satterthwaite, T. D., Gur, R. C., & Gur, R. E. (2018) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2018.06.002 · Cited by 12
Type of Traumatic Events, Mental Health Problems, and Posttraumatic Cognitions Among Eastern Anatolian Women
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“…symptoms are due to their dysfunctional ways of responding to traumatic events, such as appraising events as overwhelmingly threatening, perceiving fundamental loss of personal control, passive and withdrawn coping strategies, and selfblame (Olff et al., 2007; Pineles, Hall, & Rasmusson, 2017).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
The Costs of Silencing the Self and Divided Self in the Context of Physical Abuse, Racial/Ethnic Identity, and Medication Adherence in Women Living with HIV
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“Women develop PTSD at higher rates compared to men in a female-tomale ratio of approximately 2:1 (Olff et al., 2007).”
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“…perceived threats, loss of control, alcohol use for self-medication, insufficient social support, and differing psychobio-logical responses to trauma between sexes likely contributed to this gender-based variation (Birkeland et al. 2022; Olff et al. 2007; Tolin and Foa 2002; Valentine et al. 2019).”
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“However, the increased risk for PTSD developmentinwomencould notbeentirelyexplainedby differencesinthe event type or severity of the traumatic event, which might indicate a potential underlying biological mechanism 21,22 .”
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“These results are consistent with prior research demonstrating that women tend to report higher emotional cue reactivity and peritraumatic dissociation (Olff et al., 2007), whereas men are more likely to report reckless or self-destructive behavior (Murphy et al.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Genomic risk for post-traumatic stress disorder in families densely affected with alcohol use disorders
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“Descriptive statistics for the GWAS analytic sample are displayed in Supplemental Table 1.”
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Feminist Identity Styles, Sexual and Non-Sexual Traumatic Events, and Psychological Well-Being in a Sample of Polish Women
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Violence exposure and mental health among adolescents: The role of ethnic identity and help seeking.
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Women and Alcohol Use Disorders
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The Not So Subtle and Status Quo Maintaining Nature of Everyday Sexism
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Im, H., & Swan, L. E. T. (2021) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00207640211037726 · Cited by 11
“…which are likely to occur at a younger age and have more devastating physical and mental health effects on women with stronger perceptions of threat and loss of control due to insufficient social support resources during social conflicts or displacement (Olff et al., 2007; Renner & Salem, 2009).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Is It Personal? The Effect of Personal vs. Occupational Trauma on PTSD Symptom Severity in Emergency Responders
Wild, J., & Chang, T. E. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.856895 · Cited by 10
“Firefighters and paramedics identifying as women are reported to be more likely to develop PTSD than men (2, 9), which is consistent with epidemiological research of PTSD (10).”
BackgroundResult
Lifetime Trauma, Subjective Distress, Substance Use, and PTSD Symptoms in People with Severe Mental Illness: Comparisons Among Four Diagnostic Groups
O’Hare, T., & Sherrer, M. V. (2013) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-013-9620-8 · Cited by 10
“2006), however, women do report greater perceived threat from stressful and traumatic events (Olff et al. 2007), greater negative appraisals of trauma (Sherrer 2011), and report greater subjective distress (O’Hare et al.”
Background
Gender differences in victims of war torture: Types of torture and psychological consequences
Špirić, Ž., Opačić, G., Jović, V., Samardzic, R., Knežević, G., Mandić-Gajić, G., & Todorović, M. (2010) · Vojnosanitetski pregled · doi:10.2298/vsp1005411s · Cited by 10
The effect of childhood trauma on spatial cognition in adults: a possible role of sex
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“…consistent with clinical literature in PTSD samples suggesting that women may be particularly vulnerable to negative outcomes after exposure to trauma, as assessed with respect to prognosis (Breslau 2002), and using behavioural (Olff et al. 2007), and immunological markers (Rohleder et al. 2001).”
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A weekly diary within-individual investigation of the relationship between exposure to bullying behavior, workplace phobia, and posttraumatic stress symptomatology.
Balducci, C., Conway, P. M., & Vignoli, M. (2024) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/ocp0000371 · Cited by 9
Sex Differences in Response Inhibition–Related Neural Predictors of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Civilians With Recent Trauma
Borst, B., Jovanović, T., House, S. L., Bruce, S. E., Harnett, N. G., Roeckner, A. R., Ely, T. D., Lebois, L. A. M., Young, D. A., Beaudoin, F. L., et al. (2024) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2024.03.002 · Cited by 9
Attachment, emotion regulation, and their roles in refugee post-traumatic stress and post-migration living difficulties
Kurath, J., Bryant, R. A., Nickerson, A., Schnyder, U., Schick, M., & Morina, N. (2024) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008066.2024.2400834 · Cited by 9
“Although women seem to engage more in rumination (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2012) and have a higher risk of PTSD (Olff et al., 2007) than men, gender did not significantly influence results in our sample except for females scoring higher on attachment anxiety.”
Background
Exposure to online hate speech is positively associated with post-traumatic stress disorder symptom severity
Shmulewitz, D., Levitin, M. D., Skvirsky, V., Vider, M., Lev‐Ran, S., & Mikulincer, M. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-16168-1 · Cited by 14

Authors: Olff, M., Langeland, W., Draijer, N., & Gersons, B. P. R.
Affiliations: Amsterdam UMC Location University of Amsterdam (NL)
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
ORCID: Olff, Miranda
Langeland, Willie
Draijer, Nel
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2007
Volume: 133
Issue: 2
Pages: 183-204
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.133.2.183
OpenAlex: W2072944527
Semantic Scholar: cb3fabbf50ff1505b95b8ac8786ada0903601aae
Cited by: 1,058
References: 259
Citations by year: 2026: 30 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 59 · 2023: 67 · 2022: 78 · 2021: 56 · 2020: 106 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 46 · 2017: 66 · 2016: 66 · 2015: 64 · 2014: 58 · 2013: 57 · 2012: 50
FWCI: 41.82
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Pure Amsterdam UMC (publishedVersion)
Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research
Keywords: post-traumatic stress disorder, gender differences, women, trauma exposure, threat perception, loss of control, social support, alcohol consumption, intrusive memories, psychobiological model, clinical practice
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Age Factors, Cognition, Culture, Female, Humans, Hydrocortisone, Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System, Life Change Events, Male, Oxytocin, Pituitary-Adrenal System, Sex Factors, Social Support, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic

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Gender differences in posttraumatic stress disorder.

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