Cited by 1,058Posttraumatic Stress Disorder ResearchChild Abuse and TraumaPsychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research

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Gender differences in posttraumatic stress disorder.

Olff, Miranda, Langeland, Willie, Draijer, Nel, Gersons, Berthold P. R.·2007·Psychological Bulletin

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Abstract

One of the most consistent findings in the epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the higher risk of this disorder in women. Explanations reviewed within a psychobiological model of PTSD suggest that women's higher PTSD risk may be due to the type of trauma they experience, their younger age at the time of trauma exposure, their stronger perceptions of threat and loss of control, higher levels of peri-traumatic dissociation, insufficient social support resources, and greater use of alcohol to manage trauma-related symptoms like intrusive memories and dissociation, as well as gender-specific acute psychobiological reactions to trauma. This review demonstrates the need for additional research of the gender differences in posttraumatic stress. Recommendations are made for clinical practice.

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Charak, R., Armour, C., Elklit, A., Angmo, D., Elhai, J. D., & Koot, H. M. (2014) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.3402/ejpt.v5.25547 · Cited by 79
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Felmingham, K. L., Fong, W. C., & Bryant, R. A. (2012) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.03.026 · Cited by 73
“This may have relevance for findings that women are more at risk of developing certain clinical disorders, especially those involving consolidation of emotional memories (e.g. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (Olff et al., 2007).”
Physical and Mental Health Effects of Bushfire and Smoke in the Australian Capital Territory 2019–20
Harris, R. M. R., Swaminathan, A. D., Calear, A. L., Christensen, B. K., Lal, A., Lane, J., Leviston, Z., Reynolds, J., Trevenar, S. M., Vardoulakis, S., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.682402 · Cited by 78
“For example, women are more likely to report higher rates of PTSD (42, 43), and men to report an increase in alcohol abuse after experiencing bushfires (40, 44).”
Background
The enduring mental health impact of mass violence: A community comparison study of Cambodian civilians living in Cambodia and Thailand
Mollica, R. F., Brooks, R., Tor, S., Lopes-Cardozo, B., & Silove, D. M. (2013) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764012471597 · Cited by 73
“In our dose–effect analysis, gender (i.e. being female) was associated with higher levels of PTSD in both communities (Olff et al., 2007).”
Gender, Traumatic Events, and Mental Health Disorders in a Rural Asian Setting
Axinn, W. G., Ghimire, D. J., Williams, N. E., & Scott, K. M. (2013) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/0022146513501518 · Cited by 76
“Female sex hormones (Olff et al. 2007; Parker and Brotchie 2010) and gendered socialization processes are also thought to augment female responsivity to trauma and to lead to less effective coping and greater sensitivity to lack of social support among women (Olff et al. 2007).”
BackgroundInfluential
Association between mental disorders and subsequent adult onset asthma
Alonso, J., de Jonge, P., Lim, C. C. W., Aguilar‐Gaxiola, S., Bruffaerts, R., Caldas‐de‐Almeida, J. M., Liu, Z., O’Neill, S. M., Stein, D. J., Viana, M. C., et al. (2014) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.09.007 · Cited by 73
“In light of this research suggesting greater physiological stress reactivity in women, the stronger association we observed between PTSD and asthma for men is surprising (Olff et al. 2007).”
Background
Recollections of childhood bullying and multiple forms of victimization: correlates with psychological functioning among college students
Espelage, D. L., Hong, J. S., & Mebane, S. E. (2016) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-016-9352-z · Cited by 85
Mental health problems among children and adolescents experiencing two major earthquakes in remote mountainous regions: A longitudinal study
Tang, W., Zhao, J., Lu, Y., Yan, T., Wang, L., Zhang, J., & Xu, J. (2016) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2016.09.004 · Cited by 72
Do trauma type, stressful life events, and social support explain women veterans’ high prevalence of PTSD?
Lehavot, K., Goldberg, S. B., Chen, J. A., Katon, J. G., Glass, J. E., Fortney, J. C., Simpson, T. L., & Schnurr, P. P. (2018) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-018-1550-x · Cited by 69
Do gender and age moderate the symptom structure of PTSD? Findings from a national clinical sample of children and adolescents
Contractor, A. A., Layne, C. M., Steinberg, A. M., Ostrowski, S. A., Ford, J. D., & Elhai, J. D. (2013) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2013.09.012 · Cited by 71
Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms and Trajectories in Child Sexual Abuse Victims: An Analysis of Sex Differences Using the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being
Maikovich‐Fong, A. K., Koenen, K. C., & Jaffee, S. R. (2009) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9300-x · Cited by 67
“A variety of reasons for this purported female vulnerability have been proposed, including neurological and hormonal sex differences (Teicher et al. 2004; Olff et al. 2007), sex differences in patterns of cognitive appraisals, processing and coping styles following exposure to PTEs (Gavranidou & Rosner 2003; Olff et a…”
Background
Making connections: exploring the centrality of posttraumatic stress symptoms and covariates after a terrorist attack
Birkeland, M. S., & Heir, T. (2017) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2017.1333387 · Cited by 67
Epidemiology of depression among displaced people: A systematic review and meta-analysis
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Habituation of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis hormones to repeated homotypic stress and subsequent heterotypic stressor exposure in male and female rats
Babb, J. A., Masini, C. V., Day, H. E. W., & Campeau, S. (2014) · Stress · doi:10.3109/10253890.2014.905534 · Cited by 67
“…(Kessler et al., 2005; Linzer et al., 1996; Van de Velde et al., 2010) and several anxiety disorders (Bekker & van Mens-Verhulst, 2007; Christiansen & Elklit, 2008; Ditlevsen & Elklit, 2010; Holbrook et al., 2002; Olff et al., 2007; Stein et al., 2000; Tolin & Foa, 2006; Vesga-López et al., 2008).”
Discriminant validity and gender differences in DSM-5 posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms
Carragher, N., Sunderland, M., Batterham, P. J., Calear, A. L., Elhai, J. D., Chapman, C., & Mills, K. L. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.09.071 · Cited by 69
“experiencing traumatic events that carry high risks of developing PTSD (Olff et al., 2007); females' younger age at time of trauma (Breslau et al.”
Background
Heightened susceptibility to secondary traumatization: A meta-analysis of gender differences.
Baum, N., Rahav, G., & Sharon, M. (2014) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1037/h0099383 · Cited by 86
Modulation of the endocannabinoid system by sex hormones: Implications for posttraumatic stress disorder
Ney, L. J., Matthews, A. J., Bruno, R., & Felmingham, K. L. (2018) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.07.006 · Cited by 70
“Whilst exposure to different trauma types (and specifically interpersonal and sexual violence in women) makes a substantial contribution, this is insufficient to explain the difference in prevalence between the sexes (Olff et al., 2007; Tolin and Foa, 2006).”
Background
Gender Differences in Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms after a Terrorist Attack: A Network Approach
Birkeland, M. S., Blix, I., Solberg, Ø., & Heir, T. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02091 · Cited by 65
“It has been proposed that hyperactivation of neural fear processing networks can explain gender differences in PTSD prevalence (Olff et al., 2007).”
Background
PTSD symptoms and family versus stranger violence in Iraq and Afghanistan veterans.
Sullivan, C., & Elbogen, E. B. (2013) · Law and Human Behavior · doi:10.1037/lhb0000035 · Cited by 65
“Males might use more instrumental behaviors (Olff et al., 2007), making it easier for males to have more contact with strangers than females, thus increasing the chances for aggression toward a stranger.”
Greater avoidance behavior in individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms
Sheynin, J., Shind, C., Radell, M. L., Ebanks-Williams, Y., Gilbertson, M. W., Beck, K. D., & Myers, C. E. (2017) · Stress · doi:10.1080/10253890.2017.1309523 · Cited by 64
“PTSD may be different in females than in males (Olff et al., 2007).”
BackgroundResult
The Cross-Cultural Validity of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms in the Indian Context: A Systematic Search and Review
Gilmoor, A. R., Adithy, A., & Regeer, B. J. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00439 · Cited by 70
“A number of reasons suggest why women are at a higher risk of getting PTSD compared to men, including higher risk of exposure to specific types of traumatic events, average younger age at exposure, their social environment that generally provides fewer supportive resources, and stronger perceptions of threat and loss…”
Background
Sex differences in orbitofrontal connectivity in male and female veterans with TBI
McGlade, E., Rogowska, J., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. (2015) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-015-9379-3 · Cited by 63
“Understanding the role of sex-related effects has the potential to inform the assessment and treatment needs of female veterans, which may demonstrate both similarities and differences from male veterans with TBI (Luxton et al. 2010; Olff et al. 2007).”
Background
Enhancing Discovery of Genetic Variants for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Through Integration of Quantitative Phenotypes and Trauma Exposure Information
Maihofer, A. X., Choi, K. W., Coleman, J. R. I., Daskalakis, N. P., Denckla, C. A., Ketema, E., Morey, R. A., Polimanti, R. A., Ratanatharathorn, A. D., Torres, K., et al. (2021) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.09.020 · Cited by 61
Conditional risk for posttraumatic stress disorder in an epidemiological study of a Brazilian urban population
Luz, M. P., Coutinho, E. S. F., Berger, W., Mendlowicz, M. V., Vilete, L. M. P., Mello, M. F., Quintana, M. I., Bressan, R. A., Andreoli, S. B., Mari, J. D. J., et al. (2015) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.10.011 · Cited by 62
“Higher conditional risks among women is one of the most consistent finding in epidemiologic studies, even though the magnitude of this difference may vary (Norris et al., 2003; Breslau et al., 1998; Zlotnick et al., 2006; Hepp et al., 2006; Jeon et al., 2007; Hapke et al., 2006; Breslau et al., 1999; Steven et al., 20…”
Background
Organizational factors and mental health in community volunteers. The role of exposure, preparation, training, tasks assigned, and support
Thormar, S. B., Gersons, B. P. R., Juen, B. H., Djakababa, M. N., Karlsson, Þ., & Olff, M. (2012) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2012.743021 · Cited by 63
Self-citation
Personality disorders associated with full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder in the U.S. population: Results from Wave 2 of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions
Pietrzak, R. H., Goldstein, R. B., Southwick, S. M., & Grant, B. F. (2010) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.09.013 · Cited by 72
“Differences in gender role orientation/socialization; age of onset of traumas; types, number, and severity of traumas; cognitive appraisals of threat and loss of control; peritraumatic dissociation; social support; and psychobiological reactions to traumamay account for differential patterns of associations between PT…”
Background
Road traffic accidents and posttraumatic stress disorder in an orthopedic setting in south-eastern Nigeria: a controlled study
Iteke, O., Bakare, M. O., Agomoh, A. O., Uwakwe, R., & Onwukwe, J. U. (2011) · Scandinavian Journal of Trauma Resuscitation and Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1186/1757-7241-19-39 · Cited by 62
“During traumatic events, females use dissociative defense mechanism more than males [18].”
An Overview of the Empirical Literature on Adolescents and Political Violence
Barber, B. K., & Mikles-Schluterman, J. (2009) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195343359.003.0002 · Cited by 62
Oxytocin facilitates adaptive fear and attenuates anxiety responses in animal models and human studies—potential interaction with the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) system in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST)
Janeček, M., & Dabrowska, J. (2018) · Cell and Tissue Research · doi:10.1007/s00441-018-2889-8 · Cited by 63
“The absence of data in females is problematic as stress-induced mental disorders, including PTSD, are two to three times more prevalent in females than in males (for review, see Olff et al. (2007)).”
Cognitive paths from trauma to posttraumatic stress disorder: a prospective study of Ehlers and Clark's model in survivors of assaults or road traffic collisions
Beierl, E. T., Boellinghaus, I., Clark, D. M., Glucksman, E., & Ehlers, A. (2019) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291719002253 · Cited by 64
“We included trauma type and gender in the path models as survivors of interpersonal traumas (Kessler et al ., 2017) and women (Olff et al ., 2007) are at a higher risk of experiencing PTSD symptoms and would therefore be expected to also score higher on the cognitive factors.”
BackgroundMethodResult
A pilot study on peritraumatic dissociation and coping styles as risk factors for posttraumatic stress, anxiety and depression in parents after their child's unexpected admission to a Pediatric Intensive Care Unit
Bronner, M. B., Kayser, A.-M., Knoester, H., Bos, A. P., Last, B. F., & Grootenhuis, M. A. (2009) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/1753-2000-3-33 · Cited by 60
Contributions of risk and protective factors to prediction of psychological symptoms after traumatic experiences
Carlson, E. B., Palmieri, P. A., Field, N. P., Dalenberg, C. J., Macia, K. S., & Spain, D. A. (2016) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2016.04.022 · Cited by 74
“This finding is consistent with research showing that higher levels of prior trauma are associated with more severe responses to subsequent trauma [5, 6, 11] and research showing an association between earlier age of trauma and PTSD symptoms [60].”
Result
Sex differentials in the risk factors of post traumatic stress disorder among tsunami survivors in Tamil Nadu, India
Pyari, T., & Sundari Ravindran, T. K. (2016) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2016.07.006 · Cited by 59
Prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder during the COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia
Alshehri, F. S., Alatawi, Y. M., Alghamdi, B. S. A., Alhifany, A. A., & Alharbi, A. S. (2020) · Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal · doi:10.1016/j.jsps.2020.10.013 · Cited by 63
“For instance, gender has a signiﬁcant role in this matter, with higher chances of developing PTSD-related symptoms in females as compared to males in response to severe stressful experiences (Luxton et al., 2010; Norris et al., 2002; Olff et al., 2007).”
Emotional and behavioral sequelae of childhood maltreatment
Perepletchikova, F., & Kaufman, J. (2010) · Current Opinion in Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/mop.0b013e32833e148a · Cited by 59

Authors: Olff, M., Langeland, W., Draijer, N., & Gersons, B. P. R.
Affiliations: Amsterdam UMC Location University of Amsterdam (NL)
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
ORCID: Olff, Miranda
Langeland, Willie
Draijer, Nel
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2007
Volume: 133
Issue: 2
Pages: 183-204
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.133.2.183
OpenAlex: W2072944527
Semantic Scholar: cb3fabbf50ff1505b95b8ac8786ada0903601aae
Cited by: 1,058
References: 259
Citations by year: 2026: 30 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 59 · 2023: 67 · 2022: 78 · 2021: 56 · 2020: 106 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 46 · 2017: 66 · 2016: 66 · 2015: 64 · 2014: 58 · 2013: 57 · 2012: 50
FWCI: 41.82
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Pure Amsterdam UMC (publishedVersion)
Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research
Keywords: post-traumatic stress disorder, gender differences, women, trauma exposure, threat perception, loss of control, social support, alcohol consumption, intrusive memories, psychobiological model, clinical practice
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Age Factors, Cognition, Culture, Female, Humans, Hydrocortisone, Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System, Life Change Events, Male, Oxytocin, Pituitary-Adrenal System, Sex Factors, Social Support, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic

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