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Gender differences in posttraumatic stress disorder.
Abstract
One of the most consistent findings in the epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the higher risk of this disorder in women. Explanations reviewed within a psychobiological model of PTSD suggest that women's higher PTSD risk may be due to the type of trauma they experience, their younger age at the time of trauma exposure, their stronger perceptions of threat and loss of control, higher levels of peri-traumatic dissociation, insufficient social support resources, and greater use of alcohol to manage trauma-related symptoms like intrusive memories and dissociation, as well as gender-specific acute psychobiological reactions to trauma. This review demonstrates the need for additional research of the gender differences in posttraumatic stress. Recommendations are made for clinical practice.
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“Research has consistently shown that men and women exhibit different patterns of media consumption and varying emotional responses to distressing (media) content [196,197].”
From Impact of Media-Induced Uncertainty on Mental Health: Narrative-Based Perspective. (2025) · cites this paper as [197]
In the citing paper
“Men may experience higher levels of anger and frustration when exposed to content that challenges their values or sense of control [197].”
From Impact of Media-Induced Uncertainty on Mental Health: Narrative-Based Perspective. (2025) · cites this paper as [197]
In the citing paper
“A consistent pattern in PTSD research is that females are twice as likely to develop PTSD as males 76 .”
From Post‐traumatic stress disorder: a state‐of‐the‐art review of evidence and challenges (2019) · cites this paper as [76]
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“This increased prevalence may be related to the type of traumas women experience, to the younger age of female trauma victims, and differences between men and women in reaction to trauma (Olff et al., 2007).”
BackgroundA conceptual framework for a neurophysiological basis of art therapy for PTSD
Malhotra, B., Jones, L. C., Spooner, H., Levy, C. E., Kaimal, G., & Williamson, J. B. (2024) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2024.1351757 · Cited by 40
Liu, D., Fu, L., Zhang, J., & Chen, C. (2016) · Archives of Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2016.01.005 · Cited by 25
Husky, M. M., Pietrzak, R. H., Marx, B. P., & Mazure, C. M. (2021) · Chronic Stress · doi:10.1177/24705470211051327 · Cited by 27
Zhang, Q.-X., Wang, N., Hu, Y.-P., & Creedy, D. (2022) · Reproductive Health · doi:10.1186/s12978-022-01366-1 · Cited by 23
Bizri, M., Ibrahim, N., Beyrouthy, C., Yamout, D., Tamim, H., Abiad, J., & Ghazeeri, G. S. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0269700 · Cited by 25
van Dam, D., Ehring, T. W., Vedel, E., & Emmelkamp, P. M. G. (2012) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2012.03.005 · Cited by 26
Constantian, M. B., & Lin, C. P. (2014) · Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery · doi:10.1097/prs.0000000000000512 · Cited by 25
Traumatic Events and Symptoms Among Mexican Deportees in a Border Community
Peña, J. M., Garcini, L. M., Gutierrez, A. P., Ulibarri, M. D., & Klonoff, E. A. (2016) · Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies · doi:10.1080/15562948.2016.1158341 · Cited by 25
“, type of event) and differences in cognitive appraisals of threat may lead to PTSD differences by gender, which are important to consider in high-risk populations including deportees (Olff et al., 2007).”
BackgroundMethodPickman, L. L., Greene, T., & Gelkopf, M. (2017) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.22207 · Cited by 25
Wanklyn, S. G., Pukay‐Martin, N. D., Belus, J. M., Cyr, K. S., Girard, T. A., & Monson, C. M. (2016) · Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement · doi:10.1037/cbs0000056 · Cited by 33
Vrana, S. R., Hughes, J. W., Dennis, M. F., Calhoun, P. S., & Beckham, J. C. (2009) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2009.08.008 · Cited by 27
“This is a significant limitation of the current literature, as PTSD is more prevalent in women (Olff et al., 2007) and there is growing evidence of an association between hostility and cardiovascular outcomes in women (Haynes et al., 1980; Krantz et al., 2006; Matthews et al., 1998; Williams et…”
BackgroundThe Molecular Relationship between Stress and Insomnia
Birch, J., & Vanderheyden, W. M. (2022) · Advanced Biology · doi:10.1002/adbi.202101203 · Cited by 30
Rzeszutek, M., Dragan, M., Lis‐Turlejska, M., Schier, K., Holas, P., Drabarek, K., Hoy, A. V., Pięta, M., Poncyliusz, C., Michałowska, M., et al. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0287854 · Cited by 45
Serotonin and Female Psychopathology
Hall, E., & Steiner, M. S. (2012) · Women s Health · doi:10.2217/whe.12.64 · Cited by 26
“Individuals with PTSD show decreased HPA activity and chronically low levels of cortisol [105,106].”
Vulnerability to posttraumatic stress disorder
Lommen, M. J. J. (2008) · Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) · Cited by 24
Impact of Media-Induced Uncertainty on Mental Health: Narrative-Based Perspective.
Kesner, L., Juríčková, V., Grygarová, D., & Horáček, J. (2025) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/68640 · Cited by 23
“Men may experience higher levels of anger and frustration when exposed to content that challenges their values or sense of control [197].”
Biological sex, gender role, and Criterion A2: Rethinking the “gender” gap in PTSD.
Valdez, C. E., & Lilly, M. M. (2013) · Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy · doi:10.1037/a0031466 · Cited by 23
Female Veterans of Operations Enduring and Iraqi Freedom: Status and Future Directions
Rivera, J. C., & Johnson, A. E. (2014) · Military Medicine · doi:10.7205/milmed-d-13-00425 · Cited by 23
Cao-Lei, L., Saumier, D., Fortin, J., & Brunet, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.857087 · Cited by 27
“It is worth noting that most animal PTSD studies have been conducted on male rodents, although females are twice as likely as males to develop PTSD in humans (125, 126).”
BackgroundSingh, K., & Wendt, F. R. (2024) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-024-02730-4 · Cited by 28
“The reported lifetime prevalence of PTSD is about 10 – 12% in women and 5 – 6% in men [32].”
BackgroundMota, N. P., Schaumberg, K., Vinci, C., Sippel, L. M., Jackson, M., Schumacher, J. A., & Coffey, S. F. (2015) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2015.03.003 · Cited by 24
Nishi, D., Noguchi, H., Yonemoto, N., Nakajima, S., Kim, Y., & Matsuoka, Y. (2012) · Psychosomatics · doi:10.1016/j.psym.2012.07.010 · Cited by 23
Metadata
- Authors
- Olff, M., Langeland, W., Draijer, N., & Gersons, B. P. R.
- Affiliations
- Amsterdam UMC Location University of Amsterdam (NL)
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2007
- Volume
- 133
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 183-204
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2072944527
- Semantic Scholar
- cb3fabbf50ff1505b95b8ac8786ada0903601aae
- Cited by
- 1,058
- References
- 259
- Citations by year
- 2026: 30 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 59 · 2023: 67 · 2022: 78 · 2021: 56 · 2020: 106 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 46 · 2017: 66 · 2016: 66 · 2015: 64 · 2014: 58 · 2013: 57 · 2012: 50
- FWCI
- 41.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Pure Amsterdam UMC (publishedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research
- Keywords
- post-traumatic stress disorder, gender differences, women, trauma exposure, threat perception, loss of control, social support, alcohol consumption, intrusive memories, psychobiological model, clinical practice
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Age Factors, Cognition, Culture, Female, Humans, Hydrocortisone, Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System, Life Change Events, Male, Oxytocin, Pituitary-Adrenal System, Sex Factors, Social Support, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic
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