Structural priming: A critical review.

“…by creating a collective representation of the conversational context, achieved in part by linguistic alignment (Garrod and Pickering, 2004; Pickering and Ferreira, 2008): when two people are conversing, the content of their speech as well as how it is phrased prime the other person to…”

“…in and across different languages (e.g., Hartsuiker et al., 2004; Kantola & Van Gompel, 2011; Loebell & Bock, 2003) or modalities (e.g., Branigan et al., 2000; Segaert et al., 2012) (see Branigan & Pickering, 2017; Mahowald et al., 2016; Pickering & Ferreira, 2008, for reviews and meta-analysis).”

“language processing and provides support for structural representation and language acquisition (e.g., Ferreira and Bock, 2006; Pickering and Ferreira, 2008).”

“The two accounts are not mutually exclusive, with some recent proposals aiming at integrating both residual activation and implicit learning as complementary tools for language learning (e.g., Ferreira & Bock, 2006; Pickering & Ferreira, 2008).”

“…et al. 583 D ow nloaded from http://direct.m it.edu/jocn/article-pdf/33/4/574/1888787/jocn_a_01676.pdf by guest on 25 M arch 2021 structural similarity between previous sentences facilitates processing of the current sentence (Tooley, Traxler, & Swaab, 2009; Pickering & Ferreira, 2008; Bock, 1986).”

“…and Westenberg, 2000; Cleland and Pickering, 2003), and with a variety of experimental paradigms (Pickering and Branigan, 1998; Potter and Lombardi, 1998; Branigan et al., 2000; Hartsuiker and Westenberg, 2000); see, Pickering and Ferreira (2008) and Mahowald et al. (2016), for an overview.”

“…tool, it is especially informative about the ways in which speakers represent and use abstract structure and has, on some accounts, been likened to the abstract representation assumed by generative linguists (Pickering & Ferreira, 2008, p. 428; Jackson, 2017, for its application to L2 acquisition).”

“The theory on which this method is based is the theory of action (Garrod & Pickering, 2004; Pickering & Ferreira, 2008), while the methodological model belongs to a processbased approach (Wagoner, 2008), and the level of analysis is the microgenetic one.1 Seven online courses taught over two…”

“…WM might aid recall of linguistic material in two ways: First, encoding of syntactic structure might be facilitated by re-activation of “pre-primed” (Pickering and Ferreira, 2008) implicit syntactic knowledge in procedural memory (Jones et al., 2006; Ullman, 2001), thus requiring less attentional…”

“Pickering and Ferreira (2008) pointed out that the results of Bock's (1986) study reveal that priming happens automatically and is not related to specific communication purposes or prime-target relationships (Levelt & Kelter, 1982), or discourse factors such as register (Weiner & Labov, 1983).”

“It is well known that speakers tend to re-use recently heard structures – a phenomenon called structural priming (see Mahowald et al., 2016; Pickering & Brani-gan, 1999; Pickering & Ferreira, 2008).”

“As such, structural priming is a way to elicit less frequent alternatives that may not be produced spontaneously, and it is believed that structural priming only occurs if the speaker has a mental representation of a given syntactic structure (Pickering & Ferreira, 2008).”

“…(b) throughout the course of an experimental session, after repeated presentation of the prime structure (adaptation), (c) right after the exposure session (cumulative priming), and (d) a week or more post-exposure (long-term priming) (Kaan & Chun, 2018; Pickering & Ferreira, 2008; for a review).”

“These representations include syntactic constituents (e.g., noun phrases [NP]) and their configurations (e.g., NP → Det N) (Mahowald et al., 2016; Pickering & Ferreira, 2008).”

“If so, the strong prime would have no facilitatory effect on the target interpretation (priming effects are generally weak when structures are common and hence easy to retrieve; see [2]).”

“Syntactic priming has been observed across a range of sentence structures, production modalities, and languages (see Pickering & Ferreira, 2008, for a review).”

“It is well known that exposure to certain kinds of sentence structure will temporarily facilitate participants to produce language with the same structure, a phenomena called structural priming [7].”

“…to rely on the prime and target sentences overlapping in other aspects of linguistic structure such as lexical semantics, argument structure, or prosody, nor does it require explicit memory for the previous utterance (see Pickering & Ferreira, 2008, for a review of the paradigm and basic results).”

“In the past years, various data augmentation techniques were proposed [8] to generate more synthetic samples, while various training techniques such as batch normalization [10], dropout [26] were proposed to reduce the influence of this problem.”

“Structural priming refers to the phenomenon where encountering a specific syntactic structure boosts the probability of generating or understanding sentences with a comparable structure (Pickering and Ferreira, 2008).”

“Repeating the structure used by an interlocutor – often referred to as ‘ persistence ’ – also characterises spontaneous discourse (Pickering & Ferreira, 2008).”

“…in proficient and immersed L2 speakers, we use structural priming in production, that is, speakers ’ tendency to produce sentences with previously heard or produced structures (Ferreira & Bock, 2006, p.1; for reviews, see Branigan, 2007; Branigan & Pickering, 2017; Pickering & Ferreira, 2008).”

“Re‐ searchers contend that priming occurs at all levels of processing during language compre‐ hension and production and that the lack of priming implies the absence of a matching level of representation [16].”

“The syntactic priming is the phenomenon that speakers tend to reuse the structure that was recently processed when uttering a new sentence (J. K. Bock, 1986; Branigan & Pickering, 2017; see Pickering & Ferreira, 2008, for a review).”

“…levels of linguistic representation such as lexical, semantic, and phonological representations, although these representations can affect syntactic processing via interaction with syntactic representations (see Branigan & Pickering, 2017; Pickering & Ferreira, 2008, for detailed discussions).”

“Pickering and Ferreira (2008) have also reviewed several studies which used syntactic priming for providing evidence for autonomous syntax.”

“Additionally, two of our experiments use structural priming (Pickering and Ferreira 2008) in Italian, a language that does not appear at all in a recent meta-analysis of structural priming studies (Mahowald et al.”

“…research suggested that repetition of nouns may contribute to false positive recalls of sentences (e.g., Liben & Posnansky, 1977) and that lexical boost in structural priming tasks seemed to result from overlap of content words, not function words (for a review see Pickering & Ferreira, 2008).”

“In psycholinguistic literature, priming is often understood to be an automatic response which eases syntactic access during production (Ferreira and Bock 2006; Bock 1986) or aligns interlocutors in discourse (Pickering and Garrod 2004; Garrod and Pickering 2009; Pickering and Ferreira 2008).”

“At the structural level, alignment has been found as well, in both interactive (Branigan et al. 2000; Gries 2005; Jaeger and Snider 2013) and non-interactive contexts [Bock 1986; see Pickering and Ferreira (2008) for an overview].”

“While our work focuses on linguistic style matching, we believe that the information-theoretic method proposed can be useful for studying more general types of linguistic coordination in dialogues, such as structural priming [21, 22], or lexical entrainment [23, 24].”

“…in dialogue, the mapping from message to syntax, levels of grammatical processing, the representation of linguistic knowledge, bilingual processing, and relations between written and spoken language as well between production and comprehension (see Pickering and Ferreira 2008, for an overview).”

“Pickering and Ferreira (2008) reviewed several studies which used syntactic priming and concluded that they provide evidence for autonomous syntax.”

“…of subsequent information (target item or structure) due to lexical repetition or featural overlap at semantic, structural or other representational levels (for a review of lexical priming, see Jones & Estes, 2012; for structural priming, see Pickering & Ferreira, 2008; Tooley & Traxler, 2010).”

“…mailed the student an application”; see, e.g., Bock, 1986; Bock & Griffin, 2000; Branigan et al., 2000; Chang et al., 2000, 2006; Pickering & Branigan, 1998; Scheepers et al., 2017; Ziegler et al., 2019; for a review, see Pickering & Ferreira, 2008; for a meta-analysis, see Mahowald et al., 2016).”

“For example, syntactic priming is excellent evidence for the psychological reality of syntactic structures (Bock & Griffin, 2000; Chang et al., 2006; Ziegler & Snedeker, 2018, see Pickering & Ferreira, 2008 for a review and Mahowald et al., 2016 for a meta-analysis).”

“The reason as to why children show this sensitivity is less clear, however, as there are different theories regarding the underlying mechanisms (Pickering and Ferreira 2008).”

“The tendency to repeat a previously experienced structure is known as syntactic priming or structural priming (Bock, 1986; Pickering and Ferreira, 2008).”

“Inhumansubjects,primingeffectsaretypicallyobservedinresponsetimes 28,55,56 orinbothresponsetimesandsuccessrates.”

“The same may of course hold for adults (Jackson & Hopp, 2020): in principle, priming has effects that vary continuously from short-to long-lasting, with more repetition having more long-lasting effects, which is learning (also see Chang, Dell & Bock, 2006; Pickering & Ferreira, 2008).”

“Structural priming is the tendency for speakers to reuse the structure of a previous prime sentence in a subsequent target sentence (Pickering & Ferreira, 2008).”

“A major function of structural priming is to facilitate language learning and successful communication, which is closely connected to alignment [24].”

“First, no stimuli in our corpus occurred in question form or with embedded clauses, reducing the likelihood that listeners would parse these stimuli in such a context (e.g., Pickering & Ferreira, 2008).”

“Such a network has been claimed to correctly explain the syntactic priming effects in during language production/comprehension (Pickering and Ferreira, 2008; Tooley and Traxler, 2010).”

“The tendency for speakers to recycle pieces of language has been noted for a long time, though it was not until the 1980s that researchers began to study linguistic repetition effects using experimental methods (see Pickering & Ferreira, 2008, for an overview of some of this history).”