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Tests for comparing elements of a correlation matrix
Abstract
In a variety of situations in psychological research, it is desirable to be able to make statistical comparisons between correlation coefficients measured on the same individuals. For example, an experimenter may wish to assess whether two predictors correlate equally with a criterion variable. In another situation, the experimenter may wish to test the hypothesis that an entire matrix of correlations has remained stable over time. The present article reviews the literature on such tests, points out some statistics that should be avoided, and presents a variety of techniques that can be used safely with medium to large samples. Several illustrative numerical examples are provided.
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“As seen in Table 4, all between-subscale differences in correlation coefficients were statistically significant (all ps < 0.001).”
From Spanish adaptation of the experiential approach scale (Eas) (2021) · cites this paper as [33]
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“Goodness-of-fit for the unrotated factors was examined using the Steiger-Lind root mean square error of approximation statistic (RMSEA; Steiger, 1980) produced in CEFA.”
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“comparing correlation matrices between groups of small or moderate size (Steiger 1980).”
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“test for correlational differences (Steiger, 1980) showed that ma-”
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Validation of the subtle and blatant racism scale for Asian American college students (SABR-A²).
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“Finally, validity coefficients of both OC measures were compared by means of Williams’ test as recommended by Steiger (1980) to examine whether both OC measures map the nomological net of the construct in a similar fashion.”
MethodVittengl, J. R., Clark, L. A., & Jarrett, R. B. (2003) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/1040-3590.15.1.29 · Cited by 115
White Matter Volume and Cognitive Dysfunction in Early Huntington's Disease
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Kline, E., Wilson, C., Ereshefsky, S., Denenny, D. M., Thompson, E. C., Pitts, S., Bussell, K., Reeves, G., & Schiffman, J. (2012) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2012.07.022 · Cited by 120
“…thresholds. an effort to evaluate the agreement of each of the three screeners with SIPS diagnoses relative to the other two, correlations were compared and tested inferentially using a modification of Fisher's z for dependent samples (Dunn and Clark, 1969; Steiger, 1980; Meng et al., 1992).”
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“Steiger, 1980 ). Thus, PA-Pleasantness showed a strong negative relationship to NA, whereas PA-Activation and NA were almost uncorrelated.”
BackgroundWhat Discrete and Serial Rapid Automatized Naming Can Reveal About Reading
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“This was confirmed by z tests for dependent correlations (Steiger, 1980).”
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A self-regulatory approach to understanding boredom proneness
Struk, A. A., Scholer, A. A., & Danckert, J. A. (2015) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2015.1064363 · Cited by 112
“William’s T2 statistic (Steiger, 1980) was used to determine whether there was a significant difference between the two correlations.”
MethodShek, D. T. L. (2004) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.20057 · Cited by 112
Effects of aging on $$T_{1}$$ T 1 , $$T_{2}^{*}$$ T 2 ∗ , and QSM MRI values in the subcortex
Keuken, M. C., Bazin, P., Backhouse, K., Beekhuizen, S., Himmer, L., Kandola, A. A., Lafeber, J. J., Prochazkova, L., Trutti, A. C., Schäfer, A., et al. (2017) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-016-1352-4 · Cited by 112
“As indicated by the Fisher r-to-z transformation (Steiger 1980), the correlations did not statistically differ (RN: Z = −0.27, p = 0.79; STN: Z = −1.81, p = 0.07).”
MethodInfluentialWilson, J., Ward, C. A., Fetvadjiev, V. H., & Bethel, A. (2017) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022117732721 · Cited by 112
“Finally, the magnitudes of the correlations between both the original and revised measures of sociocultural adaptation and the criterion measures are compared with Steiger’s Z to determine if the revised measure has stronger relationships with the criterion measures (Hoerger, 2013; Steiger, 1980).”
MethodJob burnout: The contribution of emotional stability and emotional self‐efficacy beliefs
Alessandri, G., Perinelli, E., Longis, E. D., Schaufeli, W. B., Theodorou, A., Боргогни, Л., Caprara, G. V., & Cinque, L. (2018) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12225 · Cited by 137
“433) was substantially lower than theD cross-sectional correlations (z = 12.693 and z = 10.599 at T1 andT2, respectively; see Lee & Preacher, 2013; Steiger, 1980).”
InfluentialPsychological and clinical correlates of the Centrality of Event Scale: A systematic review
Gehrt, T. B., Berntsen, D., Hoyle, R. H., & Rubin, D. C. (2018) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2018.07.006 · Cited by 140
Assessing usability of eHealth technology: A comparison of usability benchmarking instruments
Broekhuis, M., van Velsen, L., & Hermens, H. J. (2019) · International Journal of Medical Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2019.05.001 · Cited by 110
“Then, for the seemingly strong correlations significance tests were computed using the calculator of Lee and Preacher [39], which is based on the work of Steiger [40].”
MethodNeuropsychological correlates of psychopathic traits in a non-incarcerated sample
Sellbom, M., & Verona, E. (2006) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2006.04.001 · Cited by 120
Activity Levels and Cognitive Functioning in an Elderly Community Sample
Christensen, H. M., Korten, A. E., Jorm, A. F., Henderson, A. S., Scott, R., & Mackinnon, A. J. (1996) · Age and Ageing · doi:10.1093/ageing/25.1.72 · Cited by 112
“The strength of the correlations between the cognitive factors and activity levels was assessed using the T2 statistic described by Steiger [24].”
MethodThe structure of PTSD symptoms: A test of alternative models using confirmatory factor analysis
Elklit, A., & Shevlin, M. E. (2006) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466506x171540 · Cited by 130
“Tests of differences between nonindependent correlation (see Steiger, 1980) showed that the correlations between the dysphoria scale and the TSC subscales were significantly higher (p , :05) than for the other PTSD scales.”
ResultJap, S. D. (2001) · Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management · doi:10.1080/08853134.2001.10754261 · Cited by 112
Eisenberg, N., Shepard, S. A., Fabes, R. A., Murphy, B. C., & Guthrie, I. K. (1998) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.00767.x · Cited by 168
THREE-DIMENSIONAL VOLUMETRICS FOR TRACKING VESTIBULAR SCHWANNOMA GROWTH IN NEUROFIBROMATOSIS TYPE II
Harris, G. J., Plotkin, S. R., MacCollin, M., Bhat, S., Urban, T., Lev, M. H., & Slattery, W. H. (2008) · Neurosurgery · doi:10.1227/01.neu.0000316858.25606.8f · Cited by 111
Simultaneous Assessment of Perceived Global and Relationship-Specific Support
Brock, D. M., Sarason, I. G., Sarason, B. R., & Pierce, G. R. (1996) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407596131008 · Cited by 111
Conceptual and Empirical Scrutiny of Covarying Depression Out of Suicidal Ideation
Rogers, M. L., Stanley, I. H., Hom, M. A., Chiurliza, B., Podlogar, M. C., & Joiner, T. E. (2016) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191116645907 · Cited by 119
“Steiger (1980) tests were conducted to examine the equality of these correlation coefficients, with significant results indicating that the two correlations were significantly different from one another.”
MethodLayden, E. A., Cacioppo, J. T., Cacioppo, S., Cappa, S. F., Dodich, A., Falini, A., & Canessa, N. (2016) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.09.050 · Cited by 118
“Steiger's Z-tests revealed that the association between PSI, controlling covariates, and right middle/superior frontal gyrus FC to right central operculum (Steiger's Z=−1.12, p=.13) was non-significant, to L insula/ frontoparietal operculum (Steiger's Z=−1.36, p=.09) was marginally significant, and to L aI/fO (Steiger…”
MethodInfluentialCordery, J. L., & Sevastos, P. P. (1993) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.78.1.141 · Cited by 111
Effects of response styles on the report of psychological and somatic distress.
Linden, W., Paulhus, D. L., & Dobson, K. S. (1986) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.54.3.309 · Cited by 111
“In fact, pair-wise betweensexes comparisons via William's modification of HoteUing's 7" as suggested by Steiger (1980) revealed no significant sex differences for the intercorrelations entered into the two respective correlation matrices.”
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Lim, L.-A. Y. L. (2009) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-009-9123-8 · Cited by 110
“xls) based on the work of Steiger (1980). The transformed z-score was 2.”
BackgroundElliott, R., & Strenta, A. C. (1988) · Journal of Educational Measurement · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3984.1988.tb00312.x · Cited by 110
Bridewell, W. B., & Chang, E. C. (1997) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(96)00224-3 · Cited by 110
Yılmaz, A. E., Gençöz, T., & Adrian Wells, A. (2008) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.589 · Cited by 111
“In order to determine whether the presence of worry factor correlated with PI-WSUR, BAI and BDI to a signifi cantly different degree than did the total PSWQ scores, tests of differences between dependent correlations (Steiger, 1980) were carried out.”
Method"Birds of a Feather...": Behavioral Concordances and Preferential Personal Attraction in Children
Rubin, K. H., Lynch, D., Coplan, R. J., Rose‐Krasnor, L., & Booth, C. L. (1994) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00848.x · Cited by 110
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Development, reliability, and validity of the Moral Identity Questionnaire
Black, J. E., & Reynolds, W. M. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.03.041 · Cited by 132
Design, development and validation of a workplace cyberbullying measure, the WCM
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Motl, R. W., Bollaert, R. E., & Sandroff, B. M. (2017) · Rehabilitation Psychology · doi:10.1037/rep0000162 · Cited by 119
“That correlation was significantly larger in magnitude than the correlations between the HCS and accelerometer-measured minutes/day of LPA, r = .16, p .001 and sedentary behavior, r = −.13, p = .001, based on Fisher’s z test for comparing the different in dependent correlations (Steiger, 1980).”
Reading motivation and reading comprehension in Chinese and English among bilingual students
Lin, D., Wong, K. K., & McBride-Chang, C. A. (2011) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-011-9297-8 · Cited by 109
“…report five frequently used goodness-of-fit indices: chisquare, the comparable fit index (CFI, Cheung & Rensvold, 2001), Joreskog and Sorbom’s Goodness of Fit (GFI) index, the non-normed fit index (NNFI; Bentler & Bonett, 1980) and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; Steiger, 1980).”
MethodSchneider, M. L., & Kwan, B. M. (2013) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.04.005 · Cited by 127
“However, further evaluation of differences in the strength of these associations, using methods described by Steiger (1980) and adjusting for the number of tests of significance, revealed no statistically significant differences in variance explained in intrinsic motivation vs. identified…”
MethodBooth, S. L., O'Brien-Morse, M. E., Dallal, G. E., Davidson, K. W., & Gundberg, C. M. (1999) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/70.3.368 · Cited by 109
Cohen, M. S., Rissman, J., Suthana, N., Castel, A. D., & Knowlton, B. J. (2014) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-014-0275-x · Cited by 108
“We compared the absolute values of these r coefficients via a test of dependent correlation coefficients (Steiger, 1980) and found that the correlation between selectivity index and lowvalue recall was significantly stronger than the correlation with high-value recall, t(18) = 2.”
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A comparison of quantitative methods for clinical imaging with hyperpolarized 13C‐pyruvate
Daniels, C. J., McLean, M. A., Schulte, R. F., Robb, F. J. L., Gill, A. B., McGlashan, N., Graves, M. J., Schwaiger, M., Lomas, D. J., Brindle, K. M., et al. (2016) · NMR in Biomedicine · doi:10.1002/nbm.3468 · Cited by 108
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The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale
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Anxiety and outcome evaluation: The good, the bad and the ambiguous
Gu, R., Ge, Y., Jiang, Y., & Luo, Y. (2010) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.07.001 · Cited by 108
Goswami, A., & Finarelli, J. A. (2016) · Evolution · doi:10.1111/evo.12956 · Cited by 99
Anxiety and feedback negativity
Gu, R., Huang, Y., & Luo, Y. (2010) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2010.00997.x · Cited by 109
Poker Mania and Problem Gambling: A Study of Distorted Cognitions, Motivation and Alexithymia
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“….31** .33** .34** .39** .88** .69** 1.00 – EOT .10 .33** .23* .19a .39** .84** .40** .63** 1.00 * p \ .05, ** p \ .01 a rs The CORCOR program (based on formulae given; Steiger 1980) was used in order to assess whether there is a significant difference in correlation size between self-determined…”
MethodInfluentialOn the Relation between the Mental Number Line and Arithmetic Competencies
Link, T., Nuerk, H., & Moeller, K. (2014) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2014.892517 · Cited by 111
“Furthermore, Steiger’s Z-test (Steiger, 1980) was used to evaluate the significance of the differences between correlations for bounded and unbounded number line estimation.”
MethodGervais, R. O., Ben‐Porath, Y. S., Wygant, D. B., & Sellbom, M. (2010) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acq018 · Cited by 107
“We used Steiger’s (1980) t-test for dependent correlations to determine whether the correlations between RBS and MCI scales were significantly higher than those for other MMPI-2-RF scales and the MCI.”
MethodMakwana, A. P., Dhont, K., keersmaecker, J. D., Akhlaghi-Ghaffarokh, P., Masure, M., & Roets, A. (2017) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-017-0860-x · Cited by 107
Revisión de los criterios para validez convergente estimada a través de la Varianza Media Extraída
de la Rubia, J. M. (2019) · Psychologia · doi:10.21500/19002386.4119 · Cited by 107
Meppelder, M., Hodes, M. W., Kef, S., & Schuengel, C. (2014) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/jir.12170 · Cited by 107
Kochanska, G., Aksan, N. S., & Nichols, K. E. (2003) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.39.6.949 · Cited by 107
Continuity and Change of Self-Reported Problem Behaviors from Adolescence into Young Adulthood
Ferdinand, R. F., Verhulst, F. C., & Wiznitzer, M. (1995) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-199505000-00020 · Cited by 107
Recognition of unfamiliar faces in prosopagnosia
Davidoff, J. B., & Landis, T. (1990) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(90)90051-o · Cited by 107
Psychometric properties of Carver and White's (1994) BIS/BAS Scales in a large sample of offenders
Poythress, N. G., Skeem, J. L., Weir, J., Lilienfeld, S. O., Douglas, K. S., Edens, J. F., & Kennealy, P. J. (2008) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.07.021 · Cited by 106
“001), indicating a significantly stronger association for ANX with BIS-A (Steiger, 1980).”
BackgroundInfluentialMeasuring COVID-19 as Traumatic Stress: Initial Psychometrics and Validation
Kira, I. A., Shuwiekh, H. A. M., Rice, K. G., Ashby, J. S., Elwakeel, S. A., Sous, M. S. F., Alhuwailah, A., Baali, S. B. A., Azdaou, C., Oliemat, E. M., et al. (2020) · Journal of Loss and Trauma · doi:10.1080/15325024.2020.1790160 · Cited by 119
“To determine the significance of the comparison between correlation sizes, we used Lee and Preacher (2013) software to calculate the fisher z score for comparing correlations (http://quantpsy.org/corrtest/corrtest2.htm) (see also, Steiger, 1980).”
MethodEvidence for conceptual combination in the left anterior temporal lobe
Baron, S. G., & Osherson, D. N. (2011) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.01.066 · Cited by 113
The malleability of behavior inhibition: A study of individual developmental functions.
Asendorpf, J. B. (1994) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.30.6.912 · Cited by 106
“For each measure of IQ or social competence, its correlation with inhibition at age 4 was contrasted with its correlation with inhibition at age 10 by Z* tests for differences between correlations in the same sample (Steiger, 1980).”
MethodShin, J. W., Lee, J., Kwon, J., Choi, J., & Kook, M. S. (2017) · British Journal of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2017-310180 · Cited by 105
Zimmerman, M. A., Martin, J. A., Clark, H., McGonigal, P. T., Harris, L. M., & Holst, C. G. (2017) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.05.014 · Cited by 107
“We compared the correlations with the DADSI and HAMA by calculating the difference between the Fisher z transformations of the correlation coefficients and dividing the difference by the standard error (Steiger, 1980).”
MethodConstruct Validity of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index–3 in Clinical Samples
Kemper, C., Lutz, J., Bahr, T., Rüddel, H., & Hock, M. (2012) · Assessment (Odessa, Fla.) · doi:10.1177/1073191111429389 · Cited by 113
“To demon strate the differential validity of subscales, correlation coefficients between ASI-3 subscales and psychopathologyrelated measures were also tested for substantial differences with methods proposed for the comparison of correlated correlation coefficients (Meng, Rosenthal, & Rubin, 1992; Steiger, 1980).”
MethodRapid automatic naming: Easy to measure, hard to improve (quickly)
de Jong, P. F., & Vrielink, L. O. (2004) · Annals of Dyslexia · doi:10.1007/s11881-004-0004-1 · Cited by 110
“correlations based on the same sample are not independent ( Steiger, 1980 ).”
BackgroundWood, D., & Brumbaugh, C. C. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015300 · Cited by 102
“In fact, because these women rated the same targets, we can determine that Amy and Barbara show significantly greater preference for sensitive men than does Cecilia via tests of dependent correlations (zs Ն 2.27, ps Ͻ .05; Steiger, 1980).”
InfluentialHead, D. M., Raz, N., Gunning‐Dixon, F. M., Williamson, A. L., & Acker, J. D. (2002) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.17.1.72 · Cited by 105
Paranoid and nonparanoid schizophrenic processing of facially displayed affect
Kline, J. S., Smith, J. E., & Ellis, H. C. (1992) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/0022-3956(92)90021-f · Cited by 105
The Driving Behavior Survey: Scale construction and validation
Clapp, J. D., Olsen, S. A., Beck, J. G., Palyo, S. A., Grant, D. M., Guðmundsdóttir, B., & Marques, L. M. (2010) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.08.008 · Cited by 108
“Examination of the hypothesized associations between behavior subscales (performance deficits and safety/caution behavior) and convergent measures (DSQ and DRAS) was conducted following recommendations offered by Steiger (1980).”
MethodBalwant, P. (2016) · Journal of Leadership Studies · doi:10.1002/jls.21423 · Cited by 105
“The web utility calculates the difference between two dependent correlations according to Steiger (1980) (see Table 6).”
MethodThe scales of general well-being (SGWB)
Longo, Y., Coyne, I. J., & Joseph, S. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.01.005 · Cited by 110
“while taking into account the correlation between two scales in the SGWB (r23) (Steiger, 1980).”
BackgroundMethodShen, W., Punyanitya, M., Chen, J., Gallagher, D., Albu, J., Pi-Sunyer, X., Lewis, C. E., Grünfeld, C., Heymsfield, S. B., & Heshka, S. (2006) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803474 · Cited by 104
Yancey, J. R., Venables, N. C., & Patrick, C. J. (2016) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.12512 · Cited by 107
“transformation, and then applies established equations (Steiger, 1980) to compute the asymptotic covariance of the estimates and then perform an asymptotic z test.”
Intranasal oxytocin enhances intrinsic corticostriatal functional connectivity in women
Bethlehem, R. A. I., Lombardo, M. V., Lai, M.-C., Auyeung, B., Crockford, S. K., Deakin, J., Soubramanian, S., Sule, A., Kundu, P., Voon, V, et al. (2017) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/tp.2017.72 · Cited by 96
Learning a spatial skill for surgery: how the contributions of abilities change with practice
Keehner, M., Lippa, Y., Montello, D. R., Tendick, F., & Hegarty, M. (2006) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1198 · Cited by 103
A proposed severity classification of borderline symptoms using the borderline symptom list (BSL-23)
Kleindienst, N., Jungkunz, M., & Bohus, M. (2020) · Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation · doi:10.1186/s40479-020-00126-6 · Cited by 133
Bowling, N. A., Huang, J. L. W., Brower, C. K., & Bragg, C. B. (2021) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/10944281211056520 · Cited by 122
Assessing Interpersonal Perceptions Using the Interpersonal Grid.
Moskowitz, D. S., & Zuroff, D. C. (2005) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/1040-3590.17.2.218 · Cited by 105
Sabini, J. P., Siepmann, M., Stein, J., & Meyerowitz, M. (2000) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/026999300378941 · Cited by 102
“All tests of signi® cance between correlations use the procedure recommended by Steiger (1980) for testing the signi® cance of the difference between two dependent correlations.”
MethodDeros, D. E., Racz, S. J., Lipton, M. F., Augenstein, T. M., Karp, J. N., Keeley, L. M., Qasmieh, N., Grewe, B. I., Aldao, A., & Reyes, A. D. L. (2017) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2017.05.001 · Cited by 102
Beyond single-word measures: L2 writing assessment, lexical richness and formulaic competence
Bestgen, Y. (2017) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2017.08.004 · Cited by 107
Connectome-Based Predictive Modeling of Individual Anxiety
Wang, Z., Goerlich, K. S., Ai, H., Aleman, A., Luo, Y., & Xu, P. (2020) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaa407 · Cited by 105
Quality of life across the schizotypy spectrum: findings from a large nonclinical adult sample
Cohen, A. S., & Davis, T. E. (2009) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2008.11.002 · Cited by 102
The effects of working memory capacity and semantic cues on the intelligibility of speech in noise
Zekveld, A. A., Rudner, M., Johnsrude, I. S., & Rönnberg, J. (2013) · The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America · doi:10.1121/1.4817926 · Cited by 103
Metadata
- Authors
- Steiger, J. H.
- Affiliations
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Steiger, James H.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1980-03
- Volume
- 87
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 245-251
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2097137621
- Cited by
- 4,621
- References
- 17
- Citations by year
- 2026: 227 · 2025: 157 · 2024: 152 · 2023: 168 · 2022: 212 · 2021: 214 · 2020: 242 · 2019: 259 · 2018: 302 · 2017: 265 · 2016: 261 · 2015: 260 · 2014: 189 · 2013: 197 · 2012: 148
- FWCI
- 16.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Multidisciplinary Science and Engineering Research
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Applications
- Keywords
- correlation coefficient, hypothesis testing
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