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The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition
Abstract
Advancing adult age is associated with reduced processing speed, which constrains cognitive performance.
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“even healthy older adults experience age-related declines across multiple facets of cognition (Park & Shaw, 1992; Park et al., 1996; Salthouse, 1996; Salthouse & Babcock, 1991)”
From Training Older Adults to Use Tablet Computers: Does It Enhance Cognitive Function? (2016) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“age-related changes in speed of information processing will constrain performance in timelimited decisions”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“Differential susceptibility to coordinative demands may also help to explain why life-span age differences in marker tests of fluid intelligence such as Raven's matrices tend to persist when participants are given unlimited amounts of time to solve the items”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“It follows a U-shaped trajectory over the lifespan, with differences in processing speed between younger and older adults being among the most widely replicated effects in the domain of cognitive aging (Salthouse 1996).”
From Hearing Impairment and Cognitive Energy: The Framework for Understanding Effortful Listening (FUEL) (2016) · cites this paper as Salthouse 1996
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Middle- and long-latency auditory evoked potentials
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Neural mechanisms of prefrontal cortical function: implications for cognitive rehabilitation
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“, (Myerson et al., 1990; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundExamining the locus of age effects on complex span tasks.
McCabe, J. A., & Hartman, M. (2003) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.18.3.562 · Cited by 33
“The final hypotheses that we tested were related to the processing speed theory ( Salthouse, 1996 ).”
BackgroundInfluentialUnifying framework for cognitive training interventions in brain aging
Turnbull, A. G., Seitz, A. R., Tadin, D., & Lin, F. V. (2022) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2022.101724 · Cited by 34
“…at-risk for dementia: (A) PS/A is more plastic and flexible, so modifiable, than many higher level cognitive processes, especially in old age (Salthouse, 1996); (B) PS/A declines in general during typical aging (Lipnicki et al., 2017; Salthouse, 1996, 2010), which indicates room for…”
BackgroundAging and predicting inferences: A diffusion model analysis
McKoon, G., & Ratcliff, R. (2012) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.002 · Cited by 35
“…adults' cognitive processing often shows decrements relative to young adults', including, for example, short-term memory deficits (e.g., Craik & Byrd, 1982; Hasher & Zacks, 1988), limitations on attentional resources (e.g., Craik, 1983), and decreases in processing speed (e.g., Salthouse, 1996).”
Contributions of associative learning to age and individual differences in fluid intelligence
Tamez, E., Myerson, J., & Hale, S. (2012) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2012.04.004 · Cited by 32
“…increased working memory and improvements in reasoning and problem solving (Fry & Hale, 1996; Kail & Hall, 1999), whereas in adults, age-related slowing is associated with decreased working memory and a decline in reasoning ability (Gregory, Nettlebeck, Howard, & Wilson, 2009; Salthouse, 1996).”
Apathy and Executive Function in Healthy Elderly—Resting State fMRI Study
Kawagoe, T., Onoda, K., & Yamaguchi, S. (2017) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00124 · Cited by 39
“…1 May 2017 | Volume 9 | Article 124 results from impairment of executive function (EF), which, among the various types of cognitive deterioration that human beings experience (Salthouse, 1996; Park et al., 2002), may be the function most susceptible even in healthy aging (West, 1996).”
BackgroundThe mapping between transformed reaction time costs and models of processing in aging and cognition.
Hedge, C., Powell, G., & Sumner, P. (2018) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000298 · Cited by 35
“403 Salthouse, T. A., & Hedden, T. (2002). Interpreting reaction time measures”
Abnormal Degree Centrality Associated With Cognitive Dysfunctions in Early Bipolar Disorder
Deng, W., Zhang, B., Zou, W., Zhang, X., Cheng, X., Guan, L., Lin, Y., Lao, G., Ye, B., Li, X., et al. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00140 · Cited by 33
“Attention and psychomotor speed are fundamental components of the cognitive system (59), and performance in both domains is correlated (60).”
BackgroundThe role of neighborhood stressors on cognitive function: A coordinated analysis
Muñoz, E., Scott, S., Corley, R. P., Wadsworth, S. J., Sliwinski, M. J., & Reynolds, C. A. (2020) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2020.102442 · Cited by 32
“For example, greater perceptions of neighborhood cohesion promote feelings of trust and unity with neighbors (Sampson, 2003) and confer the benefits of social support on cognitive health outcomes by promoting social and physical activities (Fisher et al., 2004) and buffering the adverse effects of…”
BackgroundRose, D., Ott, L., Guérin, S. M. R., Annett, L. E., Lovatt, P. J., & Delevoye, Y. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-82283-4 · Cited by 37
Sentence comprehension in ageing and Alzheimer's disease
van Boxtel, W. S., & Lawyer, L. A. (2021) · Language and Linguistics Compass · doi:10.1111/lnc3.12430 · Cited by 33
“The Processing Speed Theory of cognitive ageing (Salthouse, 1996) stipulates that in a sequence of cognitive operations, if it takes older adults longer to perform the basic, early operations, not enough time is left for them to perform later stages of the operational sequence (Salthouse, 1996, p.”
BackgroundInfluentialMackenzie, I., & Dudschig, C. (2021) · Methods in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.metip.2021.100074 · Cited by 31
Cortical iron mediates age‐related decline in fluid cognition
Howard, C. M., Jain, S., Cook, A., Packard, L. E., Mullin, H. A., Chen, N., Liu, C., Song, A. W., & Madden, D. J. (2021) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25706 · Cited by 35
Computational Models of Skill Acquisition
Ohlsson, S. (2001) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816772.017 · Cited by 32
Earl, J. K., Gerrans, P., Asher, A., & Woodside, J. (2015) · Australian Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0312896215572155 · Cited by 38
Cognitive proficiency in pediatric epilepsy
Gottlieb, L., Zelko, F. A. J., Kim, D. S., & Nordli, D. R. (2012) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2011.10.024 · Cited by 33
Attentional modulation of masked repetition and categorical priming in young and older adults
Fabre, L., Lemaire, P., & Grainger, J. (2006) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2006.10.011 · Cited by 34
“This result could be the sign of a general cognitive slowing (see Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundInfluentialMartin, D., Wittert, G., Burns, N. R., & McPherson, J. (2008) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2007.11.012 · Cited by 36
“These associations are of particular interest because of theories that relate processing speed (e.g., Salthouse, 1996a) and executive function (e.g., West, 1996) to generalized age-related cognitive decline.”
BackgroundIndividual differences in latent neuropsychological abilities at addictions treatment entry.
Bates, M. E., Labouvie, E. W., & Voelbel, G. T. (2002) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037//0893-164x.16.1.35 · Cited by 36
Cognitive flexibility in adults with high functioning autism
Bogte, H., Flamma, B., van der Meere, J., & van Engeland, H. (2007) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803390601186668 · Cited by 36
“The experimental group consisted of adults; a maximum age of 40 was set as an inclusion criterion, to avoid confounding by cognitive problems as a result of aging (eg, Salthouse, 1996 ).”
MethodExecutive functioning and general cognitive ability in pregnant women and matched controls
Onyper, S. V., Searleman, A., Thacher, P. V., Maine, E. E., & Johnson, A. G. (2010) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803391003662694 · Cited by 34
“notably older adults, reduction in the speed of processing has been shown to account for a significant portion of age-related cognitive decline (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundLee, T., Mosing, M. A., Henry, J. D., Trollor, J. N., Lammél, A., Ames, D. J., Martin, N. G., Wright, M. J., & Sachdev, P. S. (2011) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-011-9474-1 · Cited by 33
Aging Consumer Vulnerabilities Influencing Factors of Acquiescence to Informed Consent
Griffiths, M. A., & Harmon‐Kizer, T. R. (2011) · Journal of Consumer Affairs · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6606.2011.01212.x · Cited by 33
Aging and inhibition processes: The case of metaphor treatment.
Morrone, I., Declercq, C., Novella, J., & Besche, C. (2010) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0019578 · Cited by 31
Age-Related Differences in Acquisition of Perceptual-Motor Skills: Working Memory as a Mediator
Kennedy, K. M., Partridge, T., & Raz, N. (2008) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825580601186650 · Cited by 34
“The cumulative record of several decades of research indicates that advanced age is associated with moderate declines in many cognitive abilities, especially in speed of information processing, episodic memory, and executive functions ( Park & Hedden, 2001 ; Salthouse, 1996 ; Verhaeghen et al, 1993 ).”
BackgroundCognition Improvement in Taekwondo Novices Over 40. Results from the SEKWONDO Study
van Dijk, G. P., Huijts, M., & Lodder, J. (2013) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2013.00074 · Cited by 33
“Especially processing speed is one of the cognition components which deteriorates with age (Salthouse, 1996; Albinet et al., 2012) and is demanded in more complex tasks during daily activities, such as for example walking and talking at the same time.”
BackgroundVasquez, B. P., Binns, M. A., & Anderson, N. D. (2014) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbu140 · Cited by 34
“We anticipated an age-related increase in response time (Salthouse, 1996), and a linear increase in performance variability (ISD, sigma, tau) from young to young-old to old-old (Hultsch et al.”
BackgroundCategorization Deficit in Old Age: Reality or Artefact?
Pennequin, V., Fontaine, R., Bonthoux, F., et al. (2006) · Journal of Adult Development · doi:10.1007/s10804-006-9000-5 · Cited by 33
An Emotional Mediation Theory of Differential Age Effects in Episodic and Semantic Memories
Allen, P. A., Kaut, K. P., Lord, R. G., Hall, R. J., Grabbe, J. W., & Bowie, T. (2005) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/03610730500206642 · Cited by 33
“, 1987); (c) processing resource decrement (McDowd & Craik, 1988); (d) reduced inhibitory control (Hasher & Zacks, 1988; Zacks & Hasher, 1997); and (e) reduced general processing speed and increased entropy (e.g., Allen, 1991; Cerella, 1985; Morse, 1993; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundBrown, L. A. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01514 · Cited by 33
“Certainly, one influential theory of cognitive aging is that processing speed underlies most of the variance in cognitive functioning in older age (Salthouse, 1996), and this has been shown to be important specifically in visuospatial cognition in older adults (Brown et al., 2012; Guest et al.,…”
BackgroundVerhaeghen, P., Cerella, J., Semenec, S. C., Leo, M. A., Bopp, K. L., & Steitz, D. W. (2002) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.17.4.558 · Cited by 38
Tip-of-the-Tongue States and Aging: Contrasting Psycholinguistic and Metacognitive Perspectives
Schwartz, B. L., & Frazier, L. D. (2005) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.3200/genp.132.4.377-391 · Cited by 33
“Studies of cognitive aging typically show age-related declines in cognitive speed (Salthouse, 1993, 1996).”
BackgroundEva, K. W. (2003) · Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions · doi:10.1002/chp.1340230303 · Cited by 33
Effects of age and hearing loss on recognition of unaccented and accented multisyllabic words
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“The procedures used in this project were approved by the University of Maryland Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects Research.”
BackgroundMethodStawski, R. S., Sliwinski, M. J., & Hofer, S. M. (2013) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2013.761556 · Cited by 32
“Furthermore, in the context of cognitive aging, if processing speed is a central mechanism for understanding age-related variation in working memory performance (e.g., Processing Speed Theory; Salthouse, 1996), then the within-person association between processing speed and working memory should be larger among older…”
InfluentialDoucette, M., Kurth, S., Chevalier, N., Munakata, Y., & LeBourgeois, M. K. (2015) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci5040494 · Cited by 32
“The relationship between processing speed and working memory capacity [4,5] supports the assumption that more information is accessible before being lost through interference or decay [6], which increases the capacity to perform concurrent and more complex operations [7].”
BackgroundGist-based memory for prices and “better buys” in younger and older adults
Flores, C. C., Hargis, M. B., McGillivray, S., et al. (2016) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2016.1197944 · Cited by 32
“In the present study, older adults may have been particularly disadvantaged by the fast presentation rate, consistent with work on general slowing of memory processes in old age (Salthouse, 1996).”
Tsimpli, I. M., Mukhopadhyay, L., Treffers‐Daller, J., Alladi, S., Marinis, T., Panda, M., Balasubramanian, A., & Sinha, P. (2019) · Research in Comparative and International Education · doi:10.1177/1745499919828908 · Cited by 40
Mussoi, B. S., & Brown, C. (2019) · Ear and Hearing · doi:10.1097/aud.0000000000000732 · Cited by 32
“There is also evidence that aging leads to a general decrease in processing speed (Salthouse 1996).”
BackgroundA Hierarchical Watershed Model of Fluid Intelligence in Childhood and Adolescence
Fuhrmann, D., Simpson-Kent, I. L., Bathelt, J., The CALM Team, Kievit, R., Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., Astle, D. E., Manly, T., & Kievit, R. (2019) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhz091 · Cited by 37
A short digital eye-tracking assessment predicts cognitive status among adults
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Sghirripa, S., Graetz, L. J., Merkin, A., Rogasch, N. C., Semmler, J. G., & Goldsworthy, M. R. (2020) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13719 · Cited by 30
Cardiovascular risk and midlife cognitive decline in the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation
Derby, C. A., Hutchins, F., Greendale, G. A., Matthews, K. A., Sternfeld, B., Everson‐Rose, S. A., Kazlauskaite, R., Whitmer, R. A., & Brooks, M. M. (2021) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.12300 · Cited by 35
Strategies and cognitive reserve to preserve lexical production in aging
Baciu, M., Banjac, S., Roger, É., Haldin, C., Perrone‐Bertolotti, M., Lœvenbruck, H., & Démonet, J. (2021) · GeroScience · doi:10.1007/s11357-021-00367-5 · Cited by 38
“processing speed, which results in operations prevented from being successfully executed or chained due to limited time [155].”
BackgroundYang, C., Hakun, J. G., Roque, N. A., Sliwinski, M. J., & Conroy, D. E. (2021) · Preventive Medicine Reports · doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2021.101490 · Cited by 32
“We defined the meaningful change in cognitive outcomes as 0.20 standard deviation, which is equivalent to 10 years of normative cognitive aging documented in previous reviews (Salthouse, 1996 Jul; Salthouse, 2000).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLofgren, M., & Hinzen, W. (2022) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2022.106214 · Cited by 32
Getzmann, S., & Näätänen, R. (2015) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2015.07.017 · Cited by 32
“This effect, whichmight be related to the general cognitive slowing hypothesis of aging (Salthouse, 1996, 2000), has been reported in some previous studies (e.g., Bertoli et al., 2002; Cooper et al., 2006), whereas other studies did not find differences in MMN latency (e.g., Amenedo and Diaz, 1998;…”
ResultDoes Task Affordance Moderate Age-related Deficits in Strategy Production?
Bottiroli, S., Dunlosky, J. T., Guerini, K., Cavallini, E., & Hertzog, C. K. (2010) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2010.481356 · Cited by 33
“…the age-related deficits for the low-affordance task, considering that (a) processing resources decline with age (e.g., Park et al., 1996; Salthouse, 1991, 1996) and that (b) age differences are usually more evident when tasks require more self-initiated processing (Craik & Jennings,…”
BackgroundWang, M., & Chen, Y. (2006) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.21.3.581 · Cited by 32
Aging and the Detection of Contingency in Causal Learning.
Mutter, S. A., & Williams, T. W. (2004) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.19.1.13 · Cited by 32
Rodríguez‐Aranda, C., & Jakobsen, M. (2011) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617711000828 · Cited by 28
“Based on the speed of processing hypothesis (Salthouse, 1996) we expected that psychomotor performance would importantly explain both RTs and pronunciation times.”
MethodNeural correlates of cued recall in young and older adults: an event-related potential study
Angel, L., Fay, S., Bouazzaoui, B., et al. (2008) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/wnr.0b013e32831b6e0c · Cited by 32
Intelligence and Executive Control: Evidence From Aging and Bilingualism
Craik, F. I. M., & Bialystok, E. (2005) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/s0010-9452(08)70899-2 · Cited by 35
Aging and Probabilistic Learning in Single- and Multiple-Cue Tasks
Chasseigne, G., Ligneau, C., Grau, S., Gall, A. L., Roque, M., & Mullet, É. (2004) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/03610730490251469 · Cited by 32
“…probability relationships are generally absent (e.g., the numerous studies conducted by Salthouse on the reduction in processing-speed hypothesis (Salthouse, 1994, 1995, 1996a, 1996b, 2000a, 2000b), and the numerous studies conducted by Hasher and Zacks on the reduction in inhibitory control…”
BackgroundRemembering and Knowing in Adulthood: Effects of Enacted Encoding and Relations to Processing Speed
Lövdén, M., Rönnlund, M., & Nilsson, L. (2002) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1076/anec.9.3.184.9612 · Cited by 32
“The processing speed theory posits slowing of elementary processing operation as a major determinant of age-related differences across a variety of cognitive tasks (Birren & Fischer, 1995; Salthouse, 1996) including measures of executive function (Salthouse, Fristoe, & Rhee, 1996; Salthouse et al.”
BackgroundDurazzo, T. C., ROTHLIND, J. C., Gazdzinski, S. P., & Meyerhoff, D. J. (2008) · Alcohol · doi:10.1016/j.alcohol.2008.06.001 · Cited by 31
“N IH -PA Author M anuscript N IH -PA Author M anuscript N IH -PA Author M anuscript decreasing information processing speed is a major contributor to the declines in learning, memory and visuospatial abilities with increasing age (Salthouse, 1996, 2000; Christensen, 2001; Finkel et al., 2007).”
BackgroundInitial Cognitive Performance Predicts Longitudinal Aviator Performance
Yesavage, J. A., Jo, B., Adamson, M. M., Kennedy, Q., Noda, A. M., Hernandez, B., Zeitzer, J. M., Friedman, L., Fairchild, K., Scanlon, B. K., et al. (2011) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbr031 · Cited by 36
“Received July 7, 2010; Accepted February 21, 2011 Decision Editor: Robert West, PhD PROCESSING-SPEED theory proposes that much of the age-related decline observed in measures of fluid cognition can be accounted for by age-related slowing in the speed of elementary cognitive operations (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundMetacognitive monitoring in visuospatial working memory.
Thomas, A. K., Bonura, B. M., Taylor, H. A., & Brunyé, T. T. (2012) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0028556 · Cited by 31
“These results suggest that age-related working memory deficits may result from age-related processing speed difference (cf. Salthouse, 1996) as well as task complexity.”
BackgroundAuditory perception of temporal order in centenarians in comparison with young and elderly subjects
Kołodziejczyk, I., & Szela̧g, E. (2008) · Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis · doi:10.55782/ane-2008-1703 · Cited by 37
“The factors that may be responsible for such age-related decline are: (1) the general slowing of information processing in the nervous system (Salthouse 1996, Fitzgibbons and Gordon-Salant 1998, Gordon-Salant and Fitzgibbons 1999); (2) the slowing of a hypothetical internal timing mechanism, i.e. a…”
BackgroundNorton, D. J., McBain, R. K., & Chen, Y. (2009) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbp008 · Cited by 35
“This idea is consistent with the processing speed theory of age-related decline in cognition ( Salthouse, 1996 ).”
BackgroundΔημητρίου, Α. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511489938.003 · Cited by 33
Torrens‐Burton, A., Basoudan, N., Bayer, A. J., & Tales, A. (2017) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-170599 · Cited by 33
Positive Impact of Exergaming on Older Adults’ Mental and Social Well-Being: In Search of Evidence
Loos, E. F., & Kaufman, D. M. (2018) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-92037-5_9 · Cited by 35
“, our processing speed decreases) as we grow older [40, 41] so this should be considered while designing digital games for older people [35, 36, 42–45].”
BackgroundHoffman, P. (2018) · Journal of Neuropsychology · doi:10.1111/jnp.12159 · Cited by 34
“This is likely to reflect general age-related reductions in processing speed (Salthouse, 1996), rather than a semantic-specific effect.”
BackgroundMcGinnis, D., & Zelinski, E. M. (2000) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.15.2.335 · Cited by 36
Aging and enumeration: A selective deficit for the subitization of targets among distractors.
Watson, D. G., Maylor, E. A., & Manson, N. J. (2002) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.17.3.496 · Cited by 32
Item learning in cognitive skill training: Effects of item difficulty
Hoyer, W. J., Cerella, J., & Onyper, S. V. (2003) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03195809 · Cited by 32
“This particular result coincides with other aging studies that have suggested that lexically or semantically based operations, such as word priming or arithmetic, show little if any loss with age (see, e.g., Salthouse, 1996; Verhaeghen & Salthouse, 1997).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialInstance-based automaticity and aging: Acquisition, reacquisition, and long-term retention.
Jenkins, L., & Hoyer, W. J. (2000) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.15.3.551 · Cited by 41
Age-Related Differences in Implicit Learning of Non-Spatial Sequential Patterns
Negash, S., Howard, D. V., Japikse, K. C., & Howard, J. H. (2003) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1076/anec.10.2.108.14462 · Cited by 32
“Prior work has suggested that Salthouse’s ‘‘simultaneity mechanism’’ of cognitive aging underlies this deficit (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundCognitive profiles discriminate between genetic variants of behavioral frontotemporal dementia
Poos, J. M., Jiskoot, L. C., Leijdesdorff, S. M. J., Seelaar, H., Panman, J. L., van der Ende, E. L., Mol, M. O., Meeter, L. H. H., Pijnenburg, Y. A. L., Donker Kaat, L., et al. (2020) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-020-09738-y · Cited by 31
Shubert, T. E., McCulloch, K. L., Hartman, M., & Giuliani, C. A. (2010) · PubMed · Cited by 31
Memory for Visual-Spoken Language in Children and Adults
Thompson, L. A., Driscoll, D., & Markson, L. (1998) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1023/a:1022914521401 · Cited by 31
“A common finding reported in the adult cognitive aging literature is that working memory operations are performed more slowly in old adults relative to young adults (for a review, read Salthouse, 1996 ).”
BackgroundThe influence of inhibitory processes on affective theory of mind in young and old adults
Mahy, C. E. V., Vetter, N. C., Kühn‐Popp, N., Löcher, C., Krautschuk, S., & Kliegel, M. (2013) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2013.789096 · Cited by 31
“For example, perhaps processing speed has a greater impact on old adults’ affective ToM reasoning than inhibitory demand (e.g., Kail & Salthouse, 1994; Salthouse, 1996; Salthouse, Fristoe, McGuthry, & Hambrick, 1998).”
BackgroundHearing and cognition in speech comprehension
Hällgren, M. (2005) · Cited by 31
Hannes Rakoczy, B., Wandt, R., Thomas, S., Nowak, J., & Kunzmann, U. (2017) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12246 · Cited by 36
Executive Functions and Neurocognitive Aging
Spreng, R. N., Shoemaker, L. N., & Turner, G. R. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-803676-1.00008-8 · Cited by 33
Yumba, W. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01308 · Cited by 31
“The pattern of this relationship was contrary to our expectations, in support of previous studies that indicate that processing speed declines with age (Salthouse, 1996; Lunner, 2003; Larsby et al., 2005).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialStuart, S., Lord, S., Galna, B., & Rochester, L. (2018) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.13864 · Cited by 31
“As PoA and FA were highly correlated in the PD group (r = 0.76, P 0.001), FA was chosen to represent attention as it is sensitive to age-related cognitive decline (Salthouse, 1996) and is characteristic of PD dementia (Emre, 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialMorphosyntactic Production and Verbal Working Memory: Evidence From Greek Aphasia and Healthy Aging
Fyndanis, V., Arcara, G., Christidou, P., & Caplan, D. N. (2018) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2018_jslhr-l-17-0103 · Cited by 33
The Role of Cognition in Common Measures of Peripheral Synaptopathy and Hidden Hearing Loss
Kamerer, A. M., AuBuchon, A. M., Fultz, S. E., Kopun, J. G., Neely, S. T., & Rasetshwane, D. M. (2019) · American Journal of Audiology · doi:10.1044/2019_aja-19-0063 · Cited by 33
Bessette, K. L., Karstens, A. J., Crane, N. A., Peters, A. T., Stange, J. P., Elverman, K. H., Morimoto, S. S., Weisenbach, S. L., & Langenecker, S. A. (2020) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-019-09424-5 · Cited by 33
“There is ample evidence that these declines are mediated by prototypical decline in processing speed during aging (Craik, Jennings, Craik, & Salthouse, 1992; Salthouse, 1996; Salthouse & Babcock, 1991).”
BackgroundChen, Q., Baran, T. M., Turnbull, A. G., Zhang, Z., Rebok, G. W., & Lin, F. V. (2021) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25428 · Cited by 31
“VSOP trains processing speed and attention (PS/A), a cognitive domain essential to all cognitive operations (Salthouse, 1996; Woutersen et al., 2017).”
Backgroundvon Bastian, C. C., Reinhartz, A., Udale, R. C., Grégoire, S., Essounni, M., Belleville, S., & Strobach, T. (2022) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-022-00877-7 · Cited by 36
“Moreover, declines in processing speed have been proposed to account for much of the cognitive changes observed in aging [12].”
BackgroundAre car daytime running lights detrimental to motorcycle conspicuity?
Cavallo, V., & Pinto, M. (2011) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2011.09.013 · Cited by 31
Aging and response conflict solution: behavioural and functional connectivity changes
Langner, R., Cieslik, E. C., Behrwind, S. D., Roski, C., Caspers, S., Amunts, K., & Eickhoff, S. B. (2014) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-014-0758-0 · Cited by 31
“Taken together with the results of Experiment 1, our findings argue against an explanation purely based on a domain-general decline in cognitive efficiency with age, as suggested by the processing speed theory of cognitive aging (Salthouse 1996 ).”
InfluentialAge Differences in Identifying Words in Synthetic Speech
Roring, R. W., Hines, F. G., & Charness, N. H. (2007) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1518/001872007779598055 · Cited by 31
“We also suspected that some cognitive measures would be able to explain the age-related variance in performance (Salthouse,1996).”
BackgroundCompetence and Learning in Late Career
Lahn, L. C. (2003) · European Educational Research Journal · doi:10.2304/eerj.2003.2.1.3 · Cited by 31
“Whereas an age-related decrement in sensory-motoric speed is seen in many occupations, expertise may counteract such processes (deZwart et al, 1998; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundWinkens, I., Heugten, C. M. V., Fasotti, L., et al. (2008) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602010801913650 · Cited by 31
“Speed is a property of all cognitive and neurological functions and a resource of cognitive functioning in general (Salthouse, 1996; Spikman, Van Zomeren, & Deelman, 1996).”
BackgroundWojtowicz, M. A., Berrigan, L. I., & Fisk, J. D. (2012) · International Journal of MS Care · doi:10.7224/1537-2073-14.2.77 · Cited by 31
Langenecker, S. A., Briceño, E. M., Hamid, N. M., & Nielson, K. A. (2007) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2006.11.068 · Cited by 32
“Putamen/Globus Pallidus”
What is it that lingers? Garden-path (mis)interpretations in younger and older adults
Malyutina, S., & den Ouden, D. (2015) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2015.1045530 · Cited by 31
“The reduced inclination to blend might be due to a general age-related decline in cognitive processing speed (Salthouse, 1996), consistent with the overall slower processing by older adults in the present experiment.”
BackgroundResultSelf-efficacy effects on neuroelectric and behavioral indices of action monitoring in older adults
Themanson, J. R., Hillman, C. H., McAuley, E., Buck, S. M., Doerksen, S. E., Morris, K. S., & Pontifex, M. B. (2007) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2007.01.004 · Cited by 31
Older Adults’ Trait Impressions of Faces Are Sensitive to Subtle Resemblance to Emotions
Franklin, R. G., & Zebrowitz, L. A. (2013) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10919-013-0150-4 · Cited by 30
“The lower scores of OA than YA on a timed Pattern Comparison Task (Salthouse 1993) are consistent with decreases in processing speed in older adulthood (Salthouse 1996).”
The external validity of MRI‐defined vascular depression
Pimontel, M. A., Culang‐Reinlieb, M. E., Johnert, L. C., Garcon, E., Sneed, J. R., & Roose, S. P. (2013) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.3943 · Cited by 33
Souza‐Talarico, J. N., Caramelli, P., Nitríni, R., & Chaves, E. C. (2007) · Dementia & Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1590/s1980-57642008dn10300009 · Cited by 32
Gerven, P. W. M. V., Meijer, W. A., & Jolles, J. (2007) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2007.02.005 · Cited by 31
“This may indicate that the compensatory effect of high education on age-related cognitive slowing (Salthouse, 1996) is confined to relatively simple task conditions, whereas it levels off if task demands are raised beyond a critical threshold (cf. Meijer, De Groot, Van Boxtel, Van Gerven, & Jolles,…”
BackgroundThe role of nutrition on cognition and brain health in ageing: a targeted approach
Monti, J. M., Moulton, C. J., & Cohen, N. J. (2015) · Nutrition Research Reviews · doi:10.1017/s0954422415000141 · Cited by 34
“In fact, some have argued that speed of processing may underlie many of the cognitive deficits observed in ageing((86,87)).”
BackgroundRamos-Goicoa, M., Galdo‐Álvarez, S., Dı́az, F., & Zurrón, M. (2016) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-151031 · Cited by 31
“As with the behavioral findings, these results support the theory of age-related slowing of information processing [50].”
Putcha, D., & Tremont, G. N. (2016) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2016.1181716 · Cited by 31
“Indeed, much of the research demonstrating this association has focused on aMCI or amnestic-plus MCI (Greenaway et al., 2012; Marshall et al., 2011; Salthouse, 1996; Schmitter-Edgecombe & Parsey, 2014).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Salthouse, T. A.
- Affiliations
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Salthouse, Timothy A.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1996
- Volume
- 103
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 403-428
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2039752037
- Semantic Scholar
- 8ed819fe682efc79801d73e6343885be23d36fb8
- Cited by
- 5,902
- References
- 113
- Citations by year
- 2026: 269 · 2025: 251 · 2024: 232 · 2023: 214 · 2022: 217 · 2021: 273 · 2020: 240 · 2019: 296 · 2018: 280 · 2017: 273 · 2016: 284 · 2015: 309 · 2014: 267 · 2013: 266 · 2012: 283
- FWCI
- 81.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R37AG006826)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- processing speed, age differences in cognition, fluid intelligence, cognitive aging
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Attention, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Reaction Time
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