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The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition
Abstract
Advancing adult age is associated with reduced processing speed, which constrains cognitive performance.
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“even healthy older adults experience age-related declines across multiple facets of cognition (Park & Shaw, 1992; Park et al., 1996; Salthouse, 1996; Salthouse & Babcock, 1991)”
From Training Older Adults to Use Tablet Computers: Does It Enhance Cognitive Function? (2016) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“age-related changes in speed of information processing will constrain performance in timelimited decisions”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“Differential susceptibility to coordinative demands may also help to explain why life-span age differences in marker tests of fluid intelligence such as Raven's matrices tend to persist when participants are given unlimited amounts of time to solve the items”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“It follows a U-shaped trajectory over the lifespan, with differences in processing speed between younger and older adults being among the most widely replicated effects in the domain of cognitive aging (Salthouse 1996).”
From Hearing Impairment and Cognitive Energy: The Framework for Understanding Effortful Listening (FUEL) (2016) · cites this paper as Salthouse 1996
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Can acquired knowledge compensate for age-related declines in cognitive efficiency?
Charness, N. H. (2000) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10363-006 · Cited by 24
Bruce, H. A., Kochunov, P. V., Paciga, S. A., Hyde, C. L., Chen, X., Zhi, X., Zhang, B., Xi, H. S., O’Donnell, P., Whelan, C. D., et al. (2017) · Genes Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1111/gbb.12372 · Cited by 24
“However, DSST does capture a substantial variance in processing speed likely because it represents a very general constraint on cognitive processing (Salthouse 1996), and DSST is the most robust cognitive task for separating healthy controls and schizophrenia patients (Dickinson et al. 2007).”
BackgroundKállai, J., Kincses, P., Lábadi, B., Dorn, K., Szolcsányi, T., Darnai, G., Hupuczi, E., Janszky, J., & Csathó, Á. (2017) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-017-0827-4 · Cited by 25
“Studies with adults have detected an age-related general slowing and inaccuracy in motor reaction, perception and multisensory integration (Dustman and Snyder 1981; Salthouse 1996; Ribeiro and Oliveira 2007; Freiherr et al. Handling editor: Marc Ernst (University of Ulm).”
BackgroundEffects of Aging and Background Babble Noise on Speech Perception Processing: An fMRI Study
Manan, H. A., Yusoff, A. N., Franz, E. A., & Mukari, S. Z. S. (2017) · Neurophysiology · doi:10.1007/s11062-018-9707-5 · Cited by 23
“form of structural or volumetric effects induced by aging [40].”
Sojitra, R. B., Lerner, I., Petok, J. R., et al. (2018) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2018.04.006 · Cited by 24
“Cognitive abilities such as reasoning, perceptual speed, and memory decline in healthy cognitive aging (Lindenberger and Baltes, 1997; Murray et al., 2015; Salthouse, 1996), impairing the way people use information from previous experiences to make everyday decisions.”
Schubert, A., Hagemann, D., Frischkorn, G. T., & Herpertz, S. C. (2018) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2018.10.005 · Cited by 23
Age-related differences in reallocating cognitive resources when dealing with interruptions
Arnau, S., Wascher, E., & Küper, K. (2019) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.02.048 · Cited by 26
“While one approach attributes the decline in performance to a general decrease in speed of processing (Salthouse, 1996, 2000), the frontal lobe hypothesis (e.g. West, 1996) assumes that a deterioration of executive functioning accounts for age-related behavioral differences.”
James, L. E., & MacKay, D. G. (2007) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.22.1.94 · Cited by 24
“One is the two-factor theory of Salthouse (1996), in which one factor (general slowing) degrades cognitive performance of older adults because a second factor (forgetting or unavailability of information) eliminates the products of earlier processing at the time when later processing requires those…”
BackgroundInfluentialVisual target processing in high- and low-performing older subjects indexed by P3 component
Lorenzo‐López, L., Amenedo, E., Pazo-Álvarez, P., & Cadaveira, F. (2007) · Neurophysiologie Clinique · doi:10.1016/j.neucli.2007.01.008 · Cited by 23
“Several studies did document a decrease in cognitive performance with advancing age, which is reflected in slower and less accurate performance [38].”
Huang, J., Gegenfurtner, K. R., Schütz, A. C., & Billino, J. (2017) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/17.6.9 · Cited by 26
“Whereas cognitive changes have been extensively studied over the past decades (for reviews, see Baltes, Staudinger, & Lindenberger, 1999; Cabeza, Nyberg, & Park, 2005b; Craik & Byrd, 1982; Hasher & Zacks, 1988; Park & Reuter-Lorenz, 2009; Salthouse, 1996), age effects on sensorimotor capacities have been rather neglec…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialInput devices for web browsing: age and hand effects
Jastrzembski, T. S., Charness, N. H., Holley, P. E., & Feddon, J. (2005) · Universal Access in the Information Society · doi:10.1007/s10209-003-0083-5 · Cited by 24
“Older adults are expected to take longer than younger adults, due to the aforementioned age-related declines in motor control and coordination, in addition to effects of general slowing [20].”
BackgroundTask Complexity and Signal Detection Analyses of Lexical Decision Performance in Alzheimer's Disease
Madden, D. J., Welsh-Bohmer, K. A., & Tupler, L. A. (1999) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1207/s15326942dn160101 · Cited by 24
Are Lorazepam-Induced Deficits in Attention Similar to Those Resulting From Aging?
Fluck, E., Fernandes, C., & File, S. E. (2001) · Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1097/00004714-200104000-00002 · Cited by 24
Aging, memory and visual search
Kramer, A. F., Boot, W. R., McCarley, J. S., Peterson, M. S., Colcombe, A. M., & Scialfa, C. T. (2006) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2005.12.007 · Cited by 24
“Aging is consistently associated with declines in working memory (WM) that is small when tasks load on maintenance alone, but increase when tasks load on manipulation and executive control (Baddeley, 1996; Salthouse, 1996; Van der Linden, Brédart, & Beerten, 1994).”
BackgroundInfluentialAgeing and Memory: Mechanisms Underlying Age Differences in Performance
Park, D. C. (1998) · Australasian Journal on Ageing · doi:10.1111/j.1741-6612.1998.tb00867.x · Cited by 24
Age Differences in Time Perception and Their Implications for Decision Making Across the Life Span
Löckenhoff, C. E., & Rutt, J. L. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-417148-0.00011-x · Cited by 23
Measuring compensation and its plasticity across the lifespan
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“These theories have traditionally tried to explain the cognitive performance decrements in old age by proposingthat these are commonlycaused by a deficit in a specific basic cognitive process – e.g., speed deficit hypothesis (Salthouse, 1996) or inhibition deficit hypothesis (Hasher and Zacks, 1988).”
O’Shea, D. M., & Fieo, R. A. (2014) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-014-0594-0 · Cited by 25
“variance in gF in terms of a single underlying mechanism, namely processing speed (e.g., Madden, 2001; Salthouse, 1996), we also included a choice-reaction time task as a proxy for this.”
BackgroundMethodMcFall, G. P., Wiebe, S. A., Vergote, D., Anstey, K. J., & Dixon, R. A. (2015) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Diagnosis Assessment & Disease Monitoring · doi:10.1016/j.dadm.2015.08.002 · Cited by 23
“Neurocognitive speed is considered a basic cognitive ability influencing decline on multiple complex cognitive processes with aging [32,33].”
BackgroundOtaki, M., & Shibata, K. (2019) · Journal of Physical Therapy Science · doi:10.1589/jpts.31.250 · Cited by 23
Shared lexical access processes in speaking and listening? An individual differences study.
Hintz, F., Jongman, S. R., Dijkhuis, M., Hoff, V. V. '., McQueen, J. M., & Meyer, A. S. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000768 · Cited by 20
“General processing speed declines with age (e.g., Eckert, Keren, Roberts, Calhoun, & Harris, 2010; Salthouse, 1996; Salthouse & Ferrer-Caja, 2003).”
MethodInfluentialProportion of cognitive loss attributable to terminal decline
Wilson, R. S., Yu, L., Leurgans, S. E., Bennett, D. A., & Boyle, P. A. (2019) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000008671 · Cited by 24
The effects of redundancy in user-interface design on older users
Gudur, R. R., Blackler, A. L., Popović, V., Thompson, H., & Mahar, D. (2019) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2019.102385 · Cited by 23
Heterogeneous Indicators of Cognitive Performance and Performance Variability Across the Lifespan
Rutter, L. A., Vahia, I. V., Forester, B. P., Ressler, K. J., & Germine, L. T. (2020) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2020.00062 · Cited by 22
The Role of Polygenic Score and Cognitive Activity in Cognitive Functioning Among Older Adults
Shin, S. H., Park, S., Wright, C., D’Astous, V., & Kim, G. (2020) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnaa073 · Cited by 23
Aging and Peak Human Performance: A Glance Back
Hertzog, C. K. (2020) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbaa057 · Cited by 23
“Given Salthouse’s strong theoretical and empirical emphasis on age-related declines in cognition and the dependence of age differences in complex cognition from basic cognitive resources (e.g., Salthouse, 1996), his cautions are noteworthy.”
BackgroundSon, J., & Park, M. (2021) · International Journal of Automotive Technology · doi:10.1007/s12239-021-0011-9 · Cited by 23
Haywood, D., Baughman, F. D., Mullan, B. A., & Heslop, K. (2021) · Psychiatry International · doi:10.3390/psychiatryint2030018 · Cited by 23
“The most prominent of these neurocognitive components include speed of processing [42] and working memory capacity [39].”
BackgroundSentence Production in a Discourse Context in Latent Aphasia: A Real-Time Study
Salis, C., & DeDe, G. (2022) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2022_ajslp-21-00232 · Cited by 22
“Processing speed refers to how quickly cognitive operations are performed (Purdy, 2002; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundProcess-oriented intelligence research: A review from the cognitive perspective
Frischkorn, G. T., Wilhelm, O., & Oberauer, K. (2022) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2022.101681 · Cited by 25
Feng, R. C., Dong, Y., Hong, X. L., Su, Y., & Wu, X. V. (2022) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuac055 · Cited by 24
Aging and Consumer Decision Making
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Age-related decline in attentional shifting: Evidence from ERPs
Cona, G., Bisiacchi, P. S., Amodio, P., & Schiff, S. (2013) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2013.10.008 · Cited by 23
“esearchers have ascribed such findings to age-related decrease in rocessing speed [5], attentional capacity [6,7], or ability to inhibit rrelevant information [8,9].”
BackgroundMartin, D. M., Wittert, G., & Burns, N. R. (2007) · The Aging Male · doi:10.1080/13685530601183537 · Cited by 26
“Perceptual speed tasks (also known as clerical speed tasks) are simple tasks which are not dependent upon knowledge or other cognitive abilities and are assessed by the number of items correctly completed within a specified time limit [2], for example, Digit Symbol from the Wechsler scales [3].”
BackgroundThe impact of aging and hearing status on verbal short-term memory
Verhaegen, C., Collette, F., & Majerus, S. (2014) · Neuropsychology, development, and cognition. Section B, Aging, neuropsychology and cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2013.832725 · Cited by 23
“Most of previous research related STM decline to multiple cognitive factors such as a slowed speed of processing (e.g., Salthouse, 1996), a lack of inhibitory control (e.g., Persad, Abeles, Zacks, & Denburd, 2002), increased sensitivity to interference (e.g., Oberauer This research was supported by…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialZimprich, D., & Kurtz, T. (2013) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2012.690364 · Cited by 26
“First, on a very general level, working memory capacity (e.g., Baddeley & Logie, 1999) and processing speed (Salthouse, 1996) are considered basic or elementary cognitive abilities that limit higher-order cognitive processes, for example, retrieval from memory.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAn ICT-mediated social network in support of successful ageing
Ballesteros, S., Toril, P., Mayas, J., Reales, J. M., & Waterworth, J. A. (2014) · Gerontechnology · doi:10.4017/gt.2014.13.1.007.00 · Cited by 23
The Effects of Age on Processing and Storage in Working Memory Span Tasks and Reading Comprehension
Schroeder, P. J. (2014) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2014.896666 · Cited by 23
“This outcome suggests that although working memory capacity limitations impaired the older adults’ ability to successfully balance both maintaining target items in memory and responding to the sentence verification component, they were not differentially impaired by age-related declines in processing speed (Salthouse,…”
BackgroundInfluentialYi, Y., & Friedman, D. (2013) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2013.833581 · Cited by 23
“Alternatively, it could be argued that the larger-magnitude PI in older adults might be due to a general slowing mechanism (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundAge, clutter, and competitive selection.
McCarley, J. S., Yamani, Y., Kramer, A. F., & Mounts, J. R. W. (2012) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0026705 · Cited by 23
Younger but Not Older Adults Benefit from Salient Feedback during Learning
Herbert, M., Eppinger, B., & Kray, J. (2011) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00171 · Cited by 23
““Effects of errors in choice reaction tasks and (e.g., Salthouse, 1996; Li et al., 2001), they are less able to process the color information in addition to the feedback value and to relate the reward representation to the previous stimulus and the corresponding response.”
BackgroundBrébion, G., David, A. S., Bressan, R. A., & Pilowsky, L. S. (2006) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617707070014 · Cited by 23
“Slowing of processing speed was proposed as an important cause of memory deficiency in various populations, mostly the elderly (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundPreserved memory-based orienting of attention with impaired explicit memory in healthy ageing
Salvato, G., Patai, E. Z., & Nobre, A. C. (2015) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2015.10.019 · Cited by 29
“This decreased perceptual speed of processing has been amply documented in previous studies, and is considered a typical consequence of ageing (Albinet, Boucard, Bouquet, & Audiffren, 2012; Salthouse, 1996, 2000, 2011).”
Age-Related Inter-Region EEG Coupling Changes During the Control of Bottom–Up and Top–Down Attention
Li, L., & Zhao, D. (2015) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2015.00223 · Cited by 21
“Aging led to slowed RT and decreased accuracy (Table 1), indicating a slowing of Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience | www.frontiersin.org 10 December 2015 | Volume 7 | Article 223 cognitive performance with advancing age (Salthouse, 1996).”
MethodHildreth, K. L., Gozansky, W. S., Jankowski, C. M., Grigsby, J., Wolfe, P., & Kohrt, W. M. (2013) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0032230 · Cited by 23
“The marked decline in DHEAS levels with aging (Labrie, Belanger, Cusan, Gomez, & Candas, 1997) has led to speculation that it may have a role in supporting cognitive function, which also declines with age (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundLife span decrements in fluid intelligence and processing speed predict mortality risk.
Aichele, S., Rabbitt, P., & Ghisletta, P. (2015) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000035 · Cited by 22
“The authors concluded that relations between systemic neurological changes and higher-order cognitive abilities (e.g., fluid intelligence) are not solely mediated by changes in processing speed, as has previously been theorized (e.g., Salthouse, 1991, 1996).”
BackgroundPredictive cues and age-related declines in working memory performance
Padgaonkar, N. T., Zanto, T. P., Bollinger, J., & Gazzaley, A. H. (2016) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.09.002 · Cited by 26
“Alternatively, the processing speed hypothesis of cognitive aging relates poor cognitive performance to slowed information processing, which necessitates allocating more time toward information encoding (Salthouse, 1996).”
Temporal Information Processing and its Relation to Executive Functions in Elderly Individuals
Nowak, K., Dacewicz, A., Broczek, K. M., Kupisz-Urbańska, M., Gałkowski, T., & Szela̧g, E. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01599 · Cited by 26
Bressler, J., Mosley, T. H., Penman, A. D., Gottesman, R. F., Windham, B. G., Knopman, D. S., Wruck, L. M., & Boerwinkle, E. (2016) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B Neuropsychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.32509 · Cited by 24
Aging Modulates the Hemispheric Specialization during Word Production
Hoyau, E., Boudiaf, N., Cousin, É., Pichat, C., Fournet, N., Krainik, A., Jaillard, A. S., & Baciu, M. (2017) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00125 · Cited by 29
“…older adults have been frequently reported by other studies and are attributable to various causes, including general slowing of processing speed (Salthouse, 1996; Feyereisen et al., 1998), decline of executive functioning (Craik and Byrd, 1982; West, 2000; Lustig et al., 2007), decline of…”
ResultWijeakumar, S., Magnotta, V. A., & Spencer, J. P. (2017) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.06.019 · Cited by 22
“It is possible this reflects the degradation of the precision of perceptual and/or WM representations which occurs through the broadening of tuning curves (Reuter-Lorenz and Lustig, 2005) and/or increased perceptual noise (Cerella, 1985; Li et al., 2001; Salthouse, 1996; Salthouse and Meinz, 1995).”
Fagot, D., Chicherio, C., Albinet, C. T., André, N., & Audiffren, M. F. (2017) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2017.1372357 · Cited by 27
“It is well known that processing speed (e.g., Salthouse, 1996, 2000) and executive functions (e.g., Braver & West, 2008; Salthouse, Atkinson, & Berish, 2003) decline with advancing age in adulthood.”
BackgroundNarrative Discourse in Young and Older Adults: Behavioral and NIRS Analyses
Martin, C.-O., Pontbriand‐Drolet, S., Daoust, V., Yamga, E., Amiri, M., Hübner, L. C., & Ska, B. (2018) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2018.00069 · Cited by 25
“This result was expected since many studies report that processing speed declines in aging (e.g., Salthouse, 1993, 1996; Rabbitt et al., 2007; Feld and Sommers, 2009).”
ResultLanguage processing and executive functions in early treated adults with phenylketonuria (PKU)
Felice, S. D., Romani, C., Geberhiwot, T., MacDonald, A., & Palermo, L. (2018) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/02643294.2017.1422709 · Cited by 27
“A version of this hypothesis sees EFs as a reflection of speed of processing as a property of the whole, integrated brain network (e.g., see Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundSandry, J. D., Zuppichini, M. D., Rothberg, J., Valdespino‐Hayden, Z., & DeLuca, J. (2018) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acy029 · Cited by 24
Does cognitive flexibility training enhance subjective mental functioning in healthy older adults?
Buitenweg, J. I. V., van de Ven, R. M., Ridderinkhof, K. R., & Murre, J. M. J. (2018) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2018.1519106 · Cited by 27
“Normal aging is often characterized by a decline in cognitive functions, a ff ecting cognitive control, processing speed, long-term memory, and other processes essential to independent daily life (Fisk & Sharp, 2004; Luo & Craik, 2008; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundToluee, S., Rahnama, L., Karimi, N., Abdollahi, I., Arslan, S. A., & Jaberzadeh, S. J. (2018) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00441 · Cited by 22
“It should be noted that any improvement in performance, such as a reduced RT, requires high levels of cognition and improved motor performance (Salthouse, 1996; Madden, 2001).”
BackgroundHardy, S. M., Wheeldon, L., & Segaert, K. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000754 · Cited by 23
Methylphenidate does not affect convergent and divergent creative processes in healthy adults
Baas, M., Boot, N. C., van Gaal, S., Dreu, C. K. W. D., & Cools, R. (2019) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116279 · Cited by 22
Wettstein, M., Spuling, S. M., & Cengia, A. (2019) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000418 · Cited by 22
“…processing speed, which is a key marker of cognitive functioning (Finkel, Reynolds, McArdle, & Pedersen, 2007; Lindenberger, Mayr, & Kliegl, 1993; Salthouse, 1996), are associated with physical functioning (e.g., Atkinson et al., 2009; Desjardins-Crépeau et al., 2014) and with the disablement…”
BackgroundAttentional profile of adolescents with ADHD in virtual-reality dual execution tasks: A pilot study
Conde, J. A. C., & Climent, G. (2020) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2020.1760103 · Cited by 25
“Various authors have postulated that age-related changes in processing speed result in evolutionary changes in WM (Craik & Salthouse, 2011; Fry & Hale, 1996; Jensen, 1992; Salthouse, 1996; Verhaeghen & Salthouse, 1997).”
BackgroundThe emotional blink: Adult age differences in visual attention to emotional information.
Langley, L. K., Rokke, P. D., Stark, A. C., Saville, A. L., Allen, J. L., & Bagne, A. G. (2008) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0013761 · Cited by 23
“This effect of time manipulation suggests that diminished processing speed for older adults may have contributed to age-related deficits in the attentional blink (Madden, 2001; Salthouse, 1996).”
Selective Atrophy of Left Hemisphere and Frontal Lobe of the Brain in Old Men
Shan, Z., Liu, J., Sahgal, V., Wang, B., & Yue, G. H. (2005) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/60.2.165 · Cited by 23
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Tremblay, K. L., & Backer, K. C. (2016) · Ear and Hearing · doi:10.1097/aud.0000000000000307 · Cited by 27
“Also affected are slowed processing speed (Wingfield et al. 1985; Salthouse 1996; Fitzgibbons & Gordon-Salant 1998) and reduced memory abilities, including working memory capacity (Kausler 1994; Humes & Floyd 2005; see also Wingfield, 2016, this issue, pp.”
BackgroundCatecholaminergic modulation of the cost of cognitive control in healthy older adults
Froböse, M. I., Westbrook, A., Bloemendaal, M., Aarts, E., & Cools, R. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0229294 · Cited by 22
“After task completion, we administered different neuropsychological tests, including immediate and delayed story recall [59], digit span forward and backward [60], Stroop cards [61], verbal fluency [62], box completion [38] and number cancellation [63].”
BackgroundMethodLindgren, M., Hagstadius, S., Åbjörnsson, G., et al. (1997) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/713755519 · Cited by 23
Age Deficits in Learning Sequences of Spoken Words
Dennis, N. A., Howard, J. H., & Howard, D. V. (2003) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/58.4.p224 · Cited by 23
“cessing than do young people (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundNeuropsychological assessment of learning and memory
Chiaravalloti, N. D., O’Brien, A. R., & DeLuca, J. (2001) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511543579.064 · Cited by 23
Pedersen, N. L., Ripatti, S., Berg, S., et al. (2003) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1023/a:1022506018690 · Cited by 23
“Measures of perceptual speed are in part responsible for age-related variance in other cognitive measures ( Salthouse, 1993, 1996 )—and twins are perfectly correlated for age.”
BackgroundDahmani, S., Rakhmanina, N. Y., & Jiang, X. (2024) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2024.102602 · Cited by 22
“…Previous studies have shown that in children and older adults, performance in the processing speed domain may underlie performance in many other cognitive domains, especially in domains related to fl uid intelligence/function (including executive function), 68,69 but less so in young healthy adults.”
BackgroundZłomańczuk, P., Milczarek, B., Dmitruk, K., Sikorski, W., Adamczyk, W., Zegarski, T., Tafil‐Klawe, M., Chęsy, G., Klawe, J. J., & Rakowski, A. Z. (2006) · PubMed · Cited by 22
Executive functions and linguistic performance in SCD older adults and healthy controls
López-Higes, R., Prados, J. M., Rubio-Valdehita, S., et al. (2016) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2016.1256370 · Cited by 22
“Two mechanisms have been proposed to explain this language difficulty, a general decline in EFs which are nonspecific to language (Craik & Byrd, 1982; Craik, Byrd, & Swanson, 1987; Salthouse, 1996), or a deficit in accessing the specific levels of language processing (Wierenga et al., 2008).”
BackgroundKim, S., Kang, Y., Yu, K., & Lee, B. (2016) · Dementia and Neurocognitive Disorders · doi:10.12779/dnd.2016.15.4.159 · Cited by 28
Route repetition and route reversal: Effects of age and encoding method.
Allison, S. L., & Head, D. M. (2017) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000170 · Cited by 27
“Furthermore, processing speed and working memory may account for a significant portion of age-related variance in other cognitive domains (e.g., Salthouse, 1990, 1996).”
BackgroundKubota, M., Chevalier, N., & Sorace, A. (2019) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12865 · Cited by 22
Martin, A. K., Barker, M. S., Gibson, E. C., & Robinson, G. A. (2019) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acz044 · Cited by 23
Interval timing deficits and their neurobiological correlates in aging mice
Gür, E., Duyan, Y. A., Arkan, S., et al. (2020) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2020.02.021 · Cited by 22
Individual Differences in Cognitive Training Research
Katz, B., Jones, M. R., Shah, P., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-39292-5_8 · Cited by 33
Park, H., Nannt, J., & Kayser, C. (2020) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2020.12.001 · Cited by 23
Nusser, L., Pollatos, O., & Zimprich, D. (2020) · European Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1027/2512-8442/a000060 · Cited by 29
Krüger, C., Schäfer, I., van den Bussche, H., Bickel, H., Fuchs, Â., Gensichen, J. S., König, H., Maier, W., Mergenthal, K., Riedel-Heller, S. G., et al. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-044230 · Cited by 26
The role of visuospatial abilities and the level of expertise in memorising soccer animations
Mahfoudh, H. B., & Zoudji, B. (2021) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2021.1940240 · Cited by 23
“VSA also seemed to influence the processing and encoding speed of visual information (Hegarty & Kriz, 2008; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundPergher, V., Vanbilsen, N., & Hulle, M. M. V. (2021) · Neural Plasticity · doi:10.1155/2021/6612805 · Cited by 27
Kong, Q., Currie, N., Du, K., & Ruffman, T. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-10716-9 · Cited by 22
Age-related Changes in Cortical Excitability Linked to Decreased Attentional and Inhibitory Control
Cespón, J., Pellicciari, M. C., Casula, E. P., & Miniussi, C. (2022) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2022.05.021 · Cited by 24
Hu, Y., Li, J., Zhao, Y., Dong, Z., Qiu, P., Yang, S., Xu, H., Kuang, W., & Gong, Q. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.10.048 · Cited by 23
Worschech, F., James, C. E., Jünemann, K., Sinke, C., Krüger, T. H. C., Scholz, D. S., Kliegel, M., Marié, D., & ALTENMÜLLER, E. O. (2023) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.16031 · Cited by 29
“It has a major impact on all cognitive functions (Salthouse, 1996) but also on motor control and musical skills, such as performance on the Purdue Pegboard (Kobayashi-Cuya, Sakurai, Sakuma, et al.”
BackgroundCambios neuropsicológicos asociados al envejecimiento normal
Lapuente, F. R., & Sánchez‐Navarro, J. P. (1998) · Hispana · Cited by 22
Pala, P. A., N’Kaoua, B., Mazaux, J., Simion, A., Lozes, S., Sorita, É., & Sauzeon, H. (2014) · Disability and Rehabilitation Assistive Technology · doi:10.3109/17483107.2014.941952 · Cited by 22
Preservation of the Attribute Knowledge of Concepts in Normal Aging Groups
Eustache, F., Desgranges, B., Jacques, V., et al. (1998) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1998.87.3f.1155 · Cited by 22
The Dissociation between Early and Late Selection in Older Adults
Alperin, B. R., Haring, A. E., Zhuravleva, T. Y., Holcomb, P. J., Rentz, D. M., & Daffner, K. R. (2013) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00456 · Cited by 24
“On the basis of the slowed processing speed theory of aging (Salthouse, 1996), we predicted that there would be age-related delays in indices of both early and late selection, as measured by the onset and peak latency of relevant ERPs.”
InfluentialRedfern, N., & Gallagher, P. (2013) · Anaesthesia · doi:10.1111/anae.12510 · Cited by 22
“Lesions in white-matter [10] that slow processing speed [11, 12] may explain age-related changes in broader cognitive functions.”
BackgroundThe effect of exercise-induced arousal on chosen tempi for familiar melodies
Jakubowski, K., Halpern, A. R., Grierson, M., & Stewart, L. (2014) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-014-0687-1 · Cited by 22
“Musical imagery Human time perception is influenced by diverse psychological factors, ranging from age to clinical disorders to psychoactive drugs (e.g., Pastor, Artieda, Jahanshahi, & Obeso, 1992; Salthouse, 1996; Wittmann, Leland, Churan, & Paulus, 2007).”
Age-related differences in the sequential organization of speech sounds.
Hutka, S., Alain, C., Binns, M., & Bidelman, G. (2013) · Journal of the Acoustical Society of America · doi:10.1121/1.4802745 · Cited by 22
Ten challenges for decision neuroscience
Huettel, S. A. (2010) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2010.00171 · Cited by 24
“In other areas of cognitive psychology, for example, measures of processing speed, memory, and other basic abilities can predict individual differences in more complex cognitive functions (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundMeta-analysis of age and skill effects on recalling chess positions and selecting the best move
Moxley, J. H., & Charness, N. H. (2013) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-013-0420-5 · Cited by 22
“A cardinal feature of adult aging is that the rate of information processing for many tasks is slowed (Jastrzembski & Charness, 2007; Salthouse, 1996), and this has been shown even for skilled chess players doing chessrelated processing (Jastrzembski, Charness, & Vasyukova, 2006).”
BackgroundThe effects of aging on contour discrimination in clutter
Roudaia, E., Farber, L. E., Bennett, P., & Sekuler, A. B. (2011) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2011.02.015 · Cited by 22
Kalmar, J. H., Bryant, D., Tulsky, D. S., & DeLuca, J. (2004) · Rehabilitation Psychology · doi:10.1037/0090-5550.49.3.213 · Cited by 22
Faurie, I., Fraccaroli, F., & Blanc, A. L. (2008) · Le travail humain · doi:10.3917/th.712.0137 · Cited by 21
Metadata
- Authors
- Salthouse, T. A.
- Affiliations
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Salthouse, Timothy A.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1996
- Volume
- 103
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 403-428
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2039752037
- Semantic Scholar
- 8ed819fe682efc79801d73e6343885be23d36fb8
- Cited by
- 5,902
- References
- 113
- Citations by year
- 2026: 269 · 2025: 251 · 2024: 232 · 2023: 214 · 2022: 217 · 2021: 273 · 2020: 240 · 2019: 296 · 2018: 280 · 2017: 273 · 2016: 284 · 2015: 309 · 2014: 267 · 2013: 266 · 2012: 283
- FWCI
- 81.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R37AG006826)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- processing speed, age differences in cognition, fluid intelligence, cognitive aging
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Attention, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Reaction Time
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