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The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition
Abstract
Advancing adult age is associated with reduced processing speed, which constrains cognitive performance.
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“even healthy older adults experience age-related declines across multiple facets of cognition (Park & Shaw, 1992; Park et al., 1996; Salthouse, 1996; Salthouse & Babcock, 1991)”
From Training Older Adults to Use Tablet Computers: Does It Enhance Cognitive Function? (2016) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“age-related changes in speed of information processing will constrain performance in timelimited decisions”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“Differential susceptibility to coordinative demands may also help to explain why life-span age differences in marker tests of fluid intelligence such as Raven's matrices tend to persist when participants are given unlimited amounts of time to solve the items”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“It follows a U-shaped trajectory over the lifespan, with differences in processing speed between younger and older adults being among the most widely replicated effects in the domain of cognitive aging (Salthouse 1996).”
From Hearing Impairment and Cognitive Energy: The Framework for Understanding Effortful Listening (FUEL) (2016) · cites this paper as Salthouse 1996
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The role of visuospatial abilities in memorizing animations among soccer players
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“The task involves the harnessing of fluid cognition, thereby making it a putative marker for studying cognitive functions, age related variations in cognitive performances and decline (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundAge-related changes in visual encoding strategy preferences during a spatial memory task
Segen, V., Avraamides, M. N., Slattery, T. J., et al. (2021) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-021-01495-5 · Cited by 10
Individual Resonant Frequencies at Low-Gamma Range and Cognitive Processing Speed
Parčiauskaitė, V., Pipinis, E., Voicikas, A., Bjekić, J., Potapovas, M., Jurkuvėnas, V., & Griškova-Bulanova, I. (2021) · Journal of Personalized Medicine · doi:10.3390/jpm11060453 · Cited by 11
“The information processing speed represents a fundamental capacity of the nervous system [40] that underlies higher-order cognitive functions such as learning, memory, and verbal and executive functions [41,42], and is often impaired in patients with neuropsychiatric and developmental disorders [43–46].”
BackgroundHarmon, T. G., Nielsen, C., Loveridge, C., & Williams, C. (2022) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2021_jslhr-21-00190 · Cited by 13
Streb, C. K., Voelpel, S. C., & Leibold, M. (2009) · German Journal of Human Resource Management Zeitschrift für Personalforschung · doi:10.1177/239700220902300102 · Cited by 22
“Psychology, for example, seems to be a field that is particularly interested in aging, especially with regard to cognitive performance (e.g. Salthouse 1996).”
BackgroundSilva‐Fernandes, A., Cruz, S., Moreira, C. S., Pereira, D. R., Sousa, S. S., Sampaio, A., & Carvalho, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.958535 · Cited by 10
“Afterwards, to examine the potential role of processing speed (because the loss of this ability is greatly affected by age impacting the functioning of other cognitive domains) (Salthouse, 1996, 2019) on the relationship between physical activity and executive functions and longterm memory.”
BackgroundInfluentialAging, Hearing Loss, and Speech Recognition: Stop Shouting, I Can’t Understand You
Gordon-Salant, S. (2014) · Springer handbook of auditory research · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-9102-6_12 · Cited by 14
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“Decline in cognitive performance in old age particularly affects processing speed, working memory and episodic memory (Kennedy and Raz, 2009; Salthouse, 1996; Verhaeghen et al., 1993).”
BackgroundComputers and Aging: Marking Raced, Classed and Gendered Inequalities
Crow, A. (2002) · Journal of Technical Writing and Communication · doi:10.2190/en39-2t10-heay-bktn · Cited by 10
“5 times as slow at processing information at age 50 as they were at age 20 [9].”
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Controlled processes account for age-related decrease in episodic memory
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“Several factors have been identi W ed such as a reduction in processing speed or in keenness of eyesight and hearing (Baltes & Lindenberger, 1997; Frieske & Park, 1999; Lindenberger, Mayr, & Kliegl, 1993; Park et al., 1996; Salthouse, 1993, 1994, 1996a).”
Recent trends in the cognitive neuroscience of working memory
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“…r(62) =−.556, p .001, which remained highly significant when education was partialled out, r(60) =−.479, p .001, when vocabulary was partialled out, r(61) =−.654, p .001, but not when processing speed was partialled out, r(61) =−.138, p = .281, again as expected (see Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialTusch, E. S., Feng, N. C., Holcomb, P. J., & Daffner, K. R. (2017) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00348 · Cited by 10
“Previous studies have shown that on average, older individuals exhibit less efficient and reduced overall information processing capacity than younger adults (Salthouse, 1996; Mattay et al., 2006; Reuter-Lorenz and Cappell, 2008; Daffner et al., 2011).”
BackgroundMild Cognitive Impairment and Normal Aging
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Formal Modeling in Research on Episodic Memory and Aging
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Aging Extends the Time Required to Switch Cognitive Set
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“Decrease in processing speed has in fact been postulated (Salthouse, 1996) as being the single common factor to explain age-related cognitive decline via two mechanisms: more time is required to execute early operations in information processing, thus limiting the time available for higher level operations, while at t…”
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Cognitive functioning in the preclinical stages of Alzheimer´s disease and vascular dementia
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Memory Development across the Life Span
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It’s never too late to improvise: The impact of theatre improvisation on elderly population
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Aging-related decline in the neuromotor control of speech production: current and future
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“Cognitive decline in relation to working memory, attentional control, and executive function during aging (Salthouse, 1996; Park et al., 2002) has an impact on language/speech production (Barker et al.”
BackgroundEspenes, J., Lorentzen, I. M., Eliassen, I. V., Hessen, E., Waterloo, K. K., Reina, S. T., Fladby, T., Walhovd, K. B., Fjell, A. M., & Kirsebom, B. (2023) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2023.2276967 · Cited by 10
“Scores on the CWIT may decline with age due to a general age-related slowing of information processing (Salthouse, 1996) and specific deficits in executive functions like inhibitory control (Hasher & Zacks, 1988).”
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“Crucially, processing speed influences working memory efficiency [32], and recent studies have shown that toxin-induced demyelination in the hippocampus impairs learning and memory in rodents by decreasing neurogenesis [33,34].”
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“…tasks and related fluid cognitive abilities are the primary dimension of age-related cognitive decline (Madden 2001; Madden and Monge 2019; Salthouse 1985, 1996; Salthouse and Madden 2007), no previous study has investigated age-related reconfiguration of functional connectivity in the…”
Understanding music and aging through the lens of Bayesian inference
Heng, G. J., Zhang, J., Bonetti, L., Lim, W. P. H., Vuust, P., Agres, K., & Chen, S. A. (2024) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105768 · Cited by 9
“The information processing speed theory of aging (Salthouse, 1996) proposed that one of the main factors of aging is the global decline of cognitive functions due to reduction in processing speed (Charlton et al., 2008; Park et al., 2002).”
Vision-based estimation of fatigue and engagement in cognitive training sessions
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Cognitive processes and ageing
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“Cerella’s linear rate model [5] and Salthouse’s processing speed theory of cognitive aging [6] are two of the most prominent accounts.”
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“In addition, behavioral, neuropsychological, and neuroimaging literatures have demonstrated a general trend for slowed response time with age, and older adults tend to have more variable response times compared with their young adult counterparts (Brand & Markowitsch, 2010; Deakin, Aitken, Robbins, & Sahakian, 2004; N…”
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“Our results gathered from a mouse model of aging supported the view that cognitive aging is primarily associated with slowing of information processing (Salthouse 1996) rather than more cautious decision strategies as has been observed in several human studies (e.g., Starns and Ratcliff 2010).”
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“Performance on executive function tasks has also been found to be associated with basic cognitive ability (e.g., processing speed; Salthouse, 1996).”
Resting State Network Segregation Modulates Age-Related Differences in Language Production
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“…that these age-related differences in language production may be related to declines in phonological processing (Burke et al., 1991; Burke & Shafto, 2008), aspects of executive function (Hasher et al., 1991; Hoffman et al., 2018; Lustig et al., 2007), or processing speed (Salthouse, 1996, 2000).”
BackgroundInfluentialIndividual Differences in Holistic and Compositional Language Processing
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The functional relevance of visuospatial processing speed across the lifespan
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“…speed are associated with reduced task performance across a range of domains in older adults, leading to the theory that many cognitive impairments commonly associated with age-related decline are attributable to deficits in processing speed (e.g., Salthouse, 1991, 1995, 1996, 2004, 2005).”
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“These cognitive functions are susceptible to age-related declines (Salthouse, 1996; Borella et al., 2008) and enhanced through physical activity (Nouchi et al.”
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“The speed of processing hypothesis 11 proposes that a variety of cognitive abilities are affected by the speed at which the central nervous system processes information.”
Age-related effects in inter-trial inhibition of attention
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“Even though their older participants showed an increased color-based PoP than the young adults, this result was ascribed to generalized slowing (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundTowards an Aging-Specific Cognitive Phenotype: The Freedom House Study
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“Aging appears to affect multiple cognitive domains (for comprehensive reviews, see Salthouse, 1985, 1996; McDowd & Birren, 1990).”
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Electrophysiological Advances on Multiple Object Processing in Aging
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“For instance, if the age-related impairments previously found in multiple object analysis were the consequence of a general slowing due to aging, all the neural and cognitive mechanisms involved in multiple object analysis should be delayed and/or suppressed (Salthouse, 1996).”
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On Attentional Control and the Aging Driver
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“Both EF and processing speed decline with age (Salthouse, 1996).”
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“It is known that the information processing speed decreases with age [4, 5]; however, our earlier study demonstrated a paradoxical fact that the elderly solved divergent problems faster than young adult.”
Aging Effects and Working Memory in Garden-Path Recovery
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“, [36,37]), so the question of whether older adults’ SC performance is connected to their WM decline may speak to how specialized WM is.”
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Neuropsychology of Bipolar Disorder
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“, 2012), perhaps via cognitive decline (Just and Carpenter, 1992; Salthouse, 1996).”
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“This is consistent with previous research and demonstrates that eye movements are susceptible to ageing effects, in particular to reductions in processing speed, inhibitory control and spatial memory (Salthouse, 1996, Salthouse, 2009, Peltsch et al, 2011, Crawford, Smith & Berry, 2017).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialTarget value and prevalence influence visual foraging in younger and older age
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“Older adults generally process information and learn associations slower (Salthouse, 1996), which may have contributed to the reduced target-value effect on visual search in the older group.”
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How the healthy ageing brain supports semantic binding during language comprehension
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“Healthy ageing is accompanied by decline across a number of cognitive domains, such as your memory for events and the speed with which you process information (Salthouse, 1996; Waters & Caplan, 2005).”
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Information Avoidance in Consumer Choice:Do Avoidance Tendencies and Motives Vary by Age?
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Neural sensitivity to semantic neighbors is stable across the adult lifespan
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“Several aspects of cognitive processing become less efficient with increasing age (Salthouse, 1996), including an age-related decline in fluid cognition (Park et al., 2002) which is particularly prevalent in domains with high processing demands, such as WM (Salthouse, 1990).”
Dorme, A., Oudenhove, B. V., Criel, Y., Depuydt, E., Groote, E. D., Stalpaert, J., Huysman, E., van Mierlo, P., & Letter, M. D. (2023) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2023_jslhr-22-00633 · Cited by 9
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“Older adults process information slower than younger adults (Park et al., 1996; Salthouse, 1996; Verhaeghen and Salthouse, 1997).”
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“Theories of psychological aging emphasize three aspects of this process: the speed of information processing shows an aging-related decline that negatively affects cognitive abilities [26]; lack of resources and the reduced capacity of working memory [27]; poor capacity of inhibiting irrelevant information [28].”
BackgroundA cyber physical system testbed for assistive robotics technologies in the home
Dimitrov, V. D., Jagtap, V., Wills, M., et al. (2015) · International Conference on Advanced Robotics (ICAR) · doi:10.1109/icar.2015.7251475 · Cited by 9
Vieira, M. C. (2009) · Anais do ... Simpósio Brasileiro de Informática na Educação/Anais do Simpósio Brasileiro de Informática na Educação · Cited by 9
de Azevedo, A. F., & Buchweitz, A. (2014) · Letrônica · doi:10.15448/1984-4301.2014.1.16839 · Cited by 14
Silver, H., Goodman, C., Bilker, W. B., Knoll, G., Gur, R. C., & Povar, G. (2007) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803390601125963 · Cited by 9
“It also argues against the hypothesis that slowing is sufficient to explain abnormalities of complex functions (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundAn analysis of age differences in perceptual speed
McCabe, J., & Hartman, M. (2008) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.36.8.1495 · Cited by 9
“A large body of work has demonstrated the lack of independence in age-related declines across a wide range of cognitive domains (Salthouse, 1991, 1996).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialA Comparison of MicroCog and the Wechsler Memory Scale (3rd ed.) in Older Adults
Helmes, E., & Miller, M. R. (2006) · Applied Neuropsychology · doi:10.1207/s15324826an1301_4 · Cited by 9
“This is somewhat surprising given the general importance of cognitive slowing with aging (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundContemporary perspectives on effort: A special issue
Richter, M. M., & Wright, R. A. (2014) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-014-9435-0 · Cited by 10
Mediating Effect of Executive Function on Memory in Normal Aging Adults
Kim, M.-J., Kwon, J. S., & Shin, M. (2013) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.4306/pi.2013.10.2.108 · Cited by 9
“In the TMT-A, integers (1-23) were shown on the computer’s touchscreen, and participants were asked to touch the circled numbers in the correct numerical sequence.”
MethodBoulanger, M. C., Snyder, P. J., & Cohen, H. (2005) · Annales Médico-psychologiques revue psychiatrique · doi:10.1016/j.amp.2005.01.001 · Cited by 9
The Complexity of Auditory Aging
Stach, B. A., Hornsby, B. W. Y., Rosenfeld, M. A. L., et al. (2009) · Seminars in Hearing · doi:10.1055/s-0029-1215438 · Cited by 9
Nebes, R. D., Pollock, B. G., Halligan, E. M., Houck, P. R., & Saxton, J. A. (2010) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/jgp.0b013e3181e4490d · Cited by 10
“In the present study, normal-older individuals were given tasks commonly used to assess the basic processing resources of information-processing speed and working memory (17,18).”
MethodKuo, M. D., Liu, K. P. Y., & Chan, C. C. H. (2012) · World Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.4236/wjns.2012.22015 · Cited by 9
“These include slower processing speed [33], inefficiency in erasing information no longer needed in working memory [34], a decrease in memory processing which requires conscious control [35], and reduced resources for processing such as a decreased attention resources needed for effortful cognitive processing [36].”
BackgroundAge Differences in Learning from Instructional Animations
Boucheix, J., Lowe, R., & Bugaïska, A. (2015) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3131 · Cited by 10
“Animation speed of the presentation, processing strategies, and aging According to the processing speed hypothesis (Miyake, Friedman, Rettinger, Shah, & Hegarty, 2001; Miyake et al., 2000; Salthouse, 1991, 1996), mental operations slow down with aging and require extra time.”
MethodRecollecting, Recognizing, and Other Acts of Remembering: An Overview of Human Memory
LaVoie, D. J., & Cobia, D. J. (2007) · Neurology Report · doi:10.1097/npt.0b013e31814a63e8 · Cited by 9
Vance, D. E., Fazeli, P. L., Kaur, J., Pearce, P. F. F., & McGuinness, T. M. (2012) · Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services · doi:10.3928/02793695-20120508-03 · Cited by 9
Folate and Neurological Function
Morris, M. S., & Jacques, P. F. (2009) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/9781420071252-c13 · Cited by 9
Hülür, G., Ram, N., Willis, S. L., Schaie, K. W., & Gerstorf, D. (2016) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence4030012 · Cited by 9
“In addition to suggesting that processing speed and cognitive ability are linked within-person, the processing speed hypothesis [1] indicates that this link should get stronger with age.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialHonma, M., Murai, Y., Shima, S., Yotsumoto, Y., Kuroda, T., Futamura, A., Shiromaru, A., Murakami, I., & Kawamura, M. (2017) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.06.004 · Cited by 9
“elderly participants and PD patients, since aging per se would potentially impair performances requiring sensorimotor coordination (Salthouse, 1996; Hartley, 2001).”
BackgroundResultAge slowing down in detection and visual discrimination under varying presentation times
Moret‐Tatay, C., Lemus, L., Abad‐Tortosa, D., Gamermann, D., Vázquez‐Martínez, A., Navarro‐Pardo, E., & Conejero, J. A. (2017) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12372 · Cited by 12
Nilsson, E., & Nilsson, K. (2017) · Open Journal of Social Sciences · doi:10.4236/jss.2017.57006 · Cited by 9
“an individual extended field of knowledge [32] [33] [34].”
BackgroundWang, H., Pexman, P. M., Turner, G. R., Cortese, F., & Protzner, A. B. (2018) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2018.05.015 · Cited by 12
“An alternate interpretation is that age-related reductions in speed of processing (Salthouse,1996) and/ormotor speed (Seidleret al.,2010) acrossboth groups may have obscured more subtle differences in visual word recognition associated with Scrabble expertise.”
Speed‐of‐Processing Training in Assisted and Independent Living: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Smith, M., Jones, M. P., Dotson, M. M., & Wolinsky, F. D. (2018) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/jgs.15423 · Cited by 10
“We report here only on the efficacy of SOPT on processing speed because it is the focal pathway in the etiological mechanism.(26,27) Human subject approval was obtained from the University of Iowa (Institutional Review Board Protocol 201208786).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Salthouse, T. A.
- Affiliations
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Salthouse, Timothy A.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1996
- Volume
- 103
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 403-428
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2039752037
- Semantic Scholar
- 8ed819fe682efc79801d73e6343885be23d36fb8
- Cited by
- 5,902
- References
- 113
- Citations by year
- 2026: 269 · 2025: 251 · 2024: 232 · 2023: 214 · 2022: 217 · 2021: 273 · 2020: 240 · 2019: 296 · 2018: 280 · 2017: 273 · 2016: 284 · 2015: 309 · 2014: 267 · 2013: 266 · 2012: 283
- FWCI
- 81.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R37AG006826)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- processing speed, age differences in cognition, fluid intelligence, cognitive aging
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Attention, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Reaction Time
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