Cited by 5,902Aging and Gerontology ResearchCognitive Abilities and TestingCognitive Functions and Memory

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The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition

Salthouse, Timothy A.·1996·Psychological Review

DOI 10.1037/0033-295x.103.3.403

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Abstract

Advancing adult age is associated with reduced processing speed, which constrains cognitive performance.

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BackgroundMethod
French adult normative data for a Standard Executive Neuropsychological Test Battery
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RoboREIT: An interactive robotic tutor with instructive feedback component for requirements elicitation interview training
Görer, B., & Aydemir, F. B. (2023) · Journal of Software Evolution and Process · doi:10.1002/smr.2608 · Cited by 10
“The experiment includes training in requirements elicitation interviews with the given system.”
Method
A hybrid approach to dynamic cognitive psychometrics
Tanis, C. C., Heathcote, A., Zrubka, M., & Matzke, D. (2024) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-023-02295-y · Cited by 10
“Their analysis identiﬁed multiple mechanisms causing the pervasive phenomenon of age-related slowing (Salthouse, 1996), with older participants having increased non-decision time, more cautious responding as indexed by thresholds averaged over accumu-lators, and slower processing speed as indexed…”
Background
Age-related similarities and differences in cognitive and neural processing revealed by task-related microstate analysis
Denaro, C. M., Reed, C. L., Joshi, J., Petropoulos, A., Thapar, A., & Hartley, A. A. (2024) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2024.01.007 · Cited by 6
“CNSS proposes a general slowing of neuronal transmission in the central nervous system (Birren and Fisher, 1995; Salthouse, 1996).”
Background
Distress and neuroticism as mediators of the effect of childhood and adulthood adversity on cognitive performance in the UK Biobank study
Pflanz, C. P., Künzi, M., Gallacher, J., & Bauermeister, S. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-58510-z · Cited by 6
“The factor “processing speed” can be linked to the processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition that suggest an association between increased age in adulthood and a decrease in the speed with which cognitive processes be executed 51 .”
Background
Mine for life: Charting ownership effects in memory from adolescence to old age
Clarkson, T. R., Paff, H. A., Cunningham, S. J., Roß, J., Haslam, C., & Kritikos, A. (2024) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218241254119 · Cited by 5
“The process of ageing is characterised by a decline in various cognitive functions such as working memory, executive function, and processing speed (Murman, 2015; Park et al., 2002; Salthouse, 1996).”
Cognitive functions explain discrete parameters of normal walking and dual-task walking, but not postural sway in quiet stance among physically active older people
Falk, J., Sörman, D. E., Strandkvist, V. J., Vikman, I., & Röijezon, U. (2024) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-024-05425-z · Cited by 9
“Cognitive functions, including executive functions, are, according to processing speed theory, dependent on the speed of cortical operations [34].”
Background
Individual Differences in the Recognition of Spectrally Degraded Speech: Associations With Neurocognitive Functions in Adult Cochlear Implant Users and With Noise-Vocoded Simulations
Moberly, A. C., Du, L., & Tamati, T. N. (2025) · Trends in Hearing · doi:10.1177/23312165241312449 · Cited by 6
“However, older adults are also at risk for declines in these particular cognitive functions, especially those related to processing speed (Pichora-Fuller, 2003; Salthouse, 1996).”
Modification of Subjective Cognitive Outcomes in Older Persons Through Memory Training
Štěpánková, H., Lukavský, J., Kopeček, M., Steinová, D., & Řı́pová, D. (2012) · GeroPsych · doi:10.1024/1662-9647/a000061 · Cited by 6
Interlimb Practice and Aging: Coding a Simple Movement Sequence
Panzer, S., Grützmacher, N., Ellenbürger, T., & Shea, C. H. (2014) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2014.857566 · Cited by 6
“The results are also consistent with the simultaneity theory proposed by Salthouse (1996).”
Result
Desempenho de idosos em uma tarefa motora de demanda dupla de controle
Gehring, P. R., Bertolassi, M. A., Nunes, M. E. S., et al. (2009) · Revista Brasileira de Educação Física e Esporte · doi:10.1590/s1807-55092009000300003 · Cited by 6
Tennis Playing is Related to Psychomotor Speed in Older Drivers
Marmeleira, J., Melo, F., Tlemçani, M., et al. (2013) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/25.10.pms.117x20z9 · Cited by 6
“This idea is closely related with the hypothesis that changes in cognitive function with age can result from generalized age-related slowing of information processing speed ( Salthouse, 1996 ).”
Background
A lifespan developmental perspective on interpersonal accuracy
Isaacowitz, D. M., Vicaria, I. M., & Murry, M. W. E. (2016) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316181959.010 · Cited by 6
An fMRI study of age-associated changes in basic visual discrimination
Seider, T. R., Porges, E. C., Woods, A. J., & Cohen, R. A. (2020) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-020-00301-x · Cited by 6
Are Linguistic Prediction Deficits Characteristic of Adults with Dyslexia?
Engelhardt, P. E., Yuen, M. K. Y., Kenning, E., & Filipović, L. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11010059 · Cited by 8
Auditory Processing Disorders in Elderly Persons vs. Linguistic and Emotional Prosody
Rasmus, A., & Błachnio, A. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18126427 · Cited by 5
Aging Increases Cross-Modal Distraction by Unexpected Sounds: Controlling for Response Speed
Leiva, A., Andrés, P., & Parmentier, F. B. R. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.733388 · Cited by 8
“However, these studies did not control for age-related variations in response speed as a potential explanatory factor (Shimamura, 1994; Salthouse and Meinz, 1995; Salthouse, 1996).”
Background
What Explains Successful or Unsuccessful Postural Adaptations to Repeated Surface Perturbations among Older Adults?
Falk, J., Strandkvist, V. J., Vikman, I., Pauelsen, M., & Röijezon, U. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182212069 · Cited by 6
Cognitive Ageing
Cadar, D. (2018) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.79119 · Cited by 7
Do older adults mistake the accelerator for the brake pedal?: Older adults employ greater prefrontal cortical activity during a bipedal/bimanual response-position selection task
Kawai, N., & Nakata, R. (2022) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2022.113976 · Cited by 6
“, general slowing, as ubiquitously shown in various tasks [48].”
Item-level psychometrics of the Ascertain Dementia Eight-Item Informant Questionnaire
Ham, Y., Bae, S., Lee, H., Ha, Y.-N., Choi, H., Park, J., Park, H. Y., & Hong, I. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0270204 · Cited by 9
Metabolite changes in prefrontal lobes and the anterior cingulate cortex correlate with processing speed and executive function in Parkinson disease patients
He, C., Rong, S., Zhang, P., Li, R., Li, X., Li, Y., Wang, L., & Zhang, Y. (2022) · Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery · doi:10.21037/qims-21-1126 · Cited by 6
Syntactic prediction during self‐paced reading is age invariant
Cutter, M. G., Paterson, K. B., & Filik, R. (2022) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12594 · Cited by 5
The temporal dynamics of the Stroop effect from childhood to young and older adulthood
Ménétré, E., & Laganaro, M. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0256003 · Cited by 8
Influence of Physical Fitness on Age-Related Differences in Varieties of Cognitive Control: BOLD Modulations During Predictability, Switching, and UpdatingPreprint
Skolasinska, P., Basak, C., & Qin, S. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2023.04.007 · Cited by 6
Modifiable Risk Factors for Accelerated Decline in Processing Speed: Results from Three Dutch Population Cohorts
Jaarsma, E. A., Nooyens, A. C. J., Kok, A. A. L., Köhler, S., van Boxtel, M. P. J., Verschuren, W. M. M., & Huisman, M. A. (2023) · The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.14283/jpad.2023.64 · Cited by 7
“Decline in processing speed starts relatively early in life (7, 8), is associated with change in other cognitive domains (9), and is hypothesized to be a driver of impairment in other cognitive domains (7).”
Background

Authors: Salthouse, T. A.
Affiliations: Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
Corresponding author: Salthouse, Timothy A.
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1996
Volume: 103
Issue: 3
Pages: 403-428
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.103.3.403
OpenAlex: W2039752037
Semantic Scholar: 8ed819fe682efc79801d73e6343885be23d36fb8
Cited by: 5,902
References: 113
Citations by year: 2026: 269 · 2025: 251 · 2024: 232 · 2023: 214 · 2022: 217 · 2021: 273 · 2020: 240 · 2019: 296 · 2018: 280 · 2017: 273 · 2016: 284 · 2015: 309 · 2014: 267 · 2013: 266 · 2012: 283
FWCI: 81.40
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute on Aging (R37AG006826)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
Keywords: processing speed, age differences in cognition, fluid intelligence, cognitive aging
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Attention, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Reaction Time

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The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition

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