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The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition
Abstract
Advancing adult age is associated with reduced processing speed, which constrains cognitive performance.
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“even healthy older adults experience age-related declines across multiple facets of cognition (Park & Shaw, 1992; Park et al., 1996; Salthouse, 1996; Salthouse & Babcock, 1991)”
From Training Older Adults to Use Tablet Computers: Does It Enhance Cognitive Function? (2016) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“age-related changes in speed of information processing will constrain performance in timelimited decisions”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“Differential susceptibility to coordinative demands may also help to explain why life-span age differences in marker tests of fluid intelligence such as Raven's matrices tend to persist when participants are given unlimited amounts of time to solve the items”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“It follows a U-shaped trajectory over the lifespan, with differences in processing speed between younger and older adults being among the most widely replicated effects in the domain of cognitive aging (Salthouse 1996).”
From Hearing Impairment and Cognitive Energy: The Framework for Understanding Effortful Listening (FUEL) (2016) · cites this paper as Salthouse 1996
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Andreo, M., Sivakolundu, D. K., Zuppichini, M. D., West, K., Spence, J. S., Gauthier, S. A., Nguyen, T., & Rypma, B. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.04.05.716121
“Such processes could then exert broader deleterious influences on higher-order cognition (Salthouse, 1996; Schubert et al., 2023; Motes et al., 2011) and should be explored in future studies.”
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Karasinska, M. (2022) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/dc76e487z9aaaz4a84zb7f0z3c92232bd428
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“It is possible that the slower response times may be explained by the generalized slowing hypothesis (Cerella, 1985, 1990; Salthouse, 1985, 1996, 2000).”
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“This constraint-based framework gains convergent support from psychology (Salthouse, 1996): performance on speeded tasks, which probe fundamental cognitive and sensorimotor capacity operating at millisecond timescales, correlates with diverse real-world outcomes including longevity, cognitive…”
Menor, J. (2026) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2026.1736609 · Cited by 2
“The second domain of fluid ability is processing speed, which refers to the rate at which individuals perceive, process, and respond to information, and is operationalized through tasks requiring rapid symbol substitution, reaction time, or perceptual comparisons (Salthouse, 1996).”
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Frick, A., Bouazzaoui, B., Mille, J., Angel, L., Borella, E., Fay, S., Ferrandez, V., Pinard, F., Vanneste, S., & Taconnat, L. (2026) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2026.2655432
“In previous decades, several hypotheses have been put forward to explain the age-related impairments of the cognitive processes involved in episodic decline (e.g., processing speed: Salthouse, 1996; executive functions: West, 1996; working memory: Hasher & Zacks, 1988).”
Jin, J., Ma, J. Y., Wu, J., et al. (2026) · Chinese Medical Journal · doi:10.1097/cm9.0000000000004049
“[1,2] White matter hyperintensities (WMHs) are a prominent feature of cerebral small vessel disease and have been reported to mediate the association between blood–brain barrier dysfunction and IPS decline in older adults.”
Macoir, J., & Hudon, C. (2026) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2026.2662239
“The observed temporal pattern echoes prior findings that older adults experience difficulties in rapidly engaging search strategies and maintaining efficient access to lexical representations (Faroqi-Shah & Gehman, 2021; Salthouse, 1996; Wei et al., 2024).”
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“…et al., 2025), and are weaker in populations with lower domain-general executive resources (Kang et al., 2020), such as children (Gambi et al., 2018; Mani & Huettig, 2012) and older people (Dave et al., 2018; Federmeier et al., 2010; Salthouse, 1996; Schuckart et al., 2026; Wlotko et al., 2012).”
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“Older adults face further constraints due to slower processing speeds (Salthouse, 1996), which interfere with the timely coordination of encoding operations required for successful associative binding (Salthouse, 1996).”
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“This pattern differs from the substantial literature on the processing speed hypothesis which posits that as age increases, the rate of cognitive processing decreases (Salthouse, 1996, 1993).”
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“However, this does not automatically translate to their evidentiality processing being affected by age differences, since general processing speed slows down with age (Salthouse, 1996).”
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“17,18 However, we cannot rule out that the residual behavioral relevance of NACI is driven largely by general cognitive speed, rather than domain-specific connectivity constraints.”
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“…delayed or more reactive engagement of control-related processing in healthy aging, in line with evidence for reduced proactive control and greater reliance on later reactive control processes with age [109], as well as broader age-related slowing in the timing of cognitive operations [110,111].”
Wu, T.-T., Chang, Y., Yao, Z., Ren, F.-F., Wang, S.-C., & Chen, F.-T. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.107484
Eranna, P. K., Bhat, J. S., & Sarvajna, D. H. (2026) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2026.2710179
Context reinstatement reveals preserved context memory specificity in typical ageing
Gardette, J., Szöllősi, Á., Bencze, D., et al. (2026) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-026-02971-y
“First, because OAs were expected to be slower than YAs (Deary et al., 2010; Ebaid et al., 2017; Salthouse, 1996), we sought to determine time conditions that would allow them to perform the recognition task properly.”
Spoken Word Recognition as a Function of Age and Musicianship
Cox, B., & McLennan, C. T. (2026) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2026.2713357
The contribution of verbal delayed recall to phonemic but not semantic fluency in aging individuals
Wehling, E. I., Lundervold, A. J., & Wollschlaeger, D. (2026) · Oxford Open Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/oons/kvag007
“The processing speed theory suggests that cognitive slowing impairs task performance via either time limitation (mental operations exceed the allotted timeframe) or simultaneity failure (necessary information is no longer available at later processing stages) ( Salthouse 1996).”
Eckert, T., Gordt, K., Haas, A.-S., Böttinger, M. J., Schubert, A.-L., Snijder-Steinhilber, M., Wahl, H.-W., Bauer, J. M., Klenk, J., Sanabria, J. L. A., et al. (2026) · European Review of Aging and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/s11556-026-00431-z · Cited by 1
“Cognitive processing speed was assessed using the Symbol Search Test [39], which can be considered a marker of fluid cognition [40].”
Udoratina, A., Maksimenko, V., & Gordleeva, S. (2026) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2026.1906284
“For decades, the dominant account of age-related RT increase has been the general slowing hypothesis (Salthouse, 1996), which posits a uniform decline in processing speed across all cognitive stages.”
Mliki, H., Mahfoudh, H. B., & Zoudji, B. (2026) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2026.2716012
Vinnikova, A., Zhan, J., Jin, K., Ding, X., Sang, W., Xu, W., & Yang, Q. (2026) · JMIR Aging · doi:10.2196/87989
“This finding is consistent with broader evidence of age-related slowing in visual and cognitive processing speed [20,21], suggesting that standard AMP timing parameters developed for younger adults may require modification for older adults.”
McAtarsney‐Kovacs, M., Sapkota, R., van der Linde, I., & Pardhan, S. (2026) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci16080898
“Furthermore, MCI-related effects may also be due to differences in the rate of information processing, with faster processing associated with better encoding of items in VSTM [53,54].”
Smagulov, N. K., Zhamantayev, O., Arystanbay, A., Ageev, D., Turlybekova, G., & Aitkulova, A. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0355232
“Digital test response time and correction test execution time indicate that attentional processing speed declined with both increasing age and accumulating service duration, consistent with well-established trajectories of cognitive change in healthy working populations [53].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Salthouse, T. A.
- Affiliations
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Salthouse, Timothy A.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1996
- Volume
- 103
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 403-428
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2039752037
- Semantic Scholar
- 8ed819fe682efc79801d73e6343885be23d36fb8
- Cited by
- 5,902
- References
- 113
- Citations by year
- 2026: 269 · 2025: 251 · 2024: 232 · 2023: 214 · 2022: 217 · 2021: 273 · 2020: 240 · 2019: 296 · 2018: 280 · 2017: 273 · 2016: 284 · 2015: 309 · 2014: 267 · 2013: 266 · 2012: 283
- FWCI
- 81.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R37AG006826)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- processing speed, age differences in cognition, fluid intelligence, cognitive aging
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Attention, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Reaction Time
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