The DOI matches its Crossref record; 85 of the 87 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality.
Abstract
Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals ' implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then exam-ine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understand-ing of motivational and personality processes. The task for investigators of motivation and personality is to identify major patterns of behavior and link them to underlying psychological processes. In this article we (a) describe a re-search-based model that accounts for major patterns of behav-ior, (b) examine the generality of this model—its utility for un-derstanding domains beyond the ones in which it was originally
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Finally, algorithmic management usually provides comparative feedback (comparing one’s results to other workers’) and is linked to incentive pay structures, both of which reduce self-determined motivation as they are experienced as more controlling26,192.”
From Understanding and shaping the future of work with self-determination theory (2022) · cites this paper as [192]
In the citing paper
“Dweck and Leggett (1988) observed that growth mindset is associated with mastery goals, while a fixed mindset is associated with performance goals”
From Impacts of Standards-Based Grading on Students’ Mindset and Test Anxiety (2022) · cites this paper as Dweck and Leggett (1988)
In the citing paper
“This is reminiscent of goal orientation theories of motivation, where individuals may be either seeking ‘mastery’ of a topic for self-improvement, or demonstration of enhanced ‘performance’ of abilities relative to others [21,22].”
From Perceptions of scientific research literature and strategies for reading papers depend on academic career stage (2017) · cites this paper as [21]
In the citing paper
“motivational factors and mindfulness promote self-regulation of learning [31, 52] and self-regulation of academic stress [24, 40, 53].”
In the citing paper
“Achievement motivation factors have been conceptualized as a trait-like individual difference variable that is relatively general and stable across achievement situations and have been hypothesized to influence affect, cognition, and behavior in various achievement situations [40, 41].”
In the citing paper
“Dweck’s theory hypothesizes that the incremental theory of intelligence predicts adaptive affect, cognition, and behavior, whereas the entity theory predicts maladaptive affect, cognition, and behavior.”
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, an emphasis on performance goals has been linked to vulnerability to a maladaptive helpless response to achievement setbacks (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988)”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“In other words, they may orient toward learning goals, which have been associated with high achievement motivation (cf. Nicholls, 1984) as well as continued displays of persistence, enjoyment, and good performance in the face of setbacks (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“In particular, Dweck and her associates have linked ability attributions for failure to helpless responding in the face of failure (Diener & Dweck, 1978, 1980; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“whereas learning goals, effort attributions, and mastery responses have been linked to an incremental view of intelligence as subject to improvement (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Mueller & Dweck, 1997).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“The measure was designed to contain a choice of tasks that embodied different goals and has been used successfully in previous studies (see Dweck & Leggett, 1988).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“Indeed, the pattern of performance goals, ability attributions, and helpless postfailure responses described above has been associated with an entity view of intelligence as a fixed trait”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“Dominant motivational models such as achievement goal theory and self-efficacy theory have adopted a sociocognitive perspective that highlights the importance of cognitive and social factors, as well as their complex interplay in understanding motivated behaviours (e.g.Covington, 2000;Dweck & Leggett, 1988;Schunk, 1991).”
From Teachers’ perceptions of declining participation in school music (2011) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“Research on responses to feedback suggests that additional internal factors might play a role, including self-efficacy, which refers to students' beliefs about their capabilities to achieve a specific goal or task (Bandura, 1986); goal orientation, which refers to students' purpose for engaging in a task or behavior (Dweck and Leggett, 1988;Elliot, 2005;Mega et al., 2014); mindset, which are one's”
From The Next Black Box of Formative Assessment: A Model of the Internal Mechanisms of Feedback Processing (2022) · cites this paper as Dweck and Leggett, 1988
In the citing paper
“In general, people who believe that (motor) abilities are relatively fixed (so-called entity theorists), tend to be more concerned with proving their ability, and they perceive errors or negative feedback as a threat to the self, because they reveal a limited capacity or lack of ability.”
From Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning (2016) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
Citations
Cites
Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement.
Rotter, J. B. (1966) · Psychological Monographs: General and Applied · doi:10.1037/h0092976 · Cited by 21,937
Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation.
Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E., & Teasdale, J. D. (1978) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.87.1.49 · Cited by 7,121
Erikson, E. H. (1959) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 6,863
Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence.
White, R. W. (1963) · Scott, Foresman eBooks · doi:10.1037/14156-005 · Cited by 4,835
Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing.
Bem, S. L. (1981) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.88.4.354 · Cited by 4,408
Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance.
Nicholls, J. G. (1984) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.91.3.328 · Cited by 4,161
Self-schemata and processing information about the self.
Markus, H. R. (1977) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.35.2.63 · Cited by 3,911
Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behavior
JONES, E. E. (1987) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 3,760
(1996) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-2458 · Cited by 3,746
Goals: An approach to motivation and achievement.
Elliott, E. S., & Dweck, C. S. (1988) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.54.1.5 · Cited by 3,098
Self-citation
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 10,201–10,300 of 10,306
Petek, M. (2025) · University of Maribor digital library (University of Maribor)
Determinants of Academic Underachievement in Children and Adolescents: A Quantitative Path Analysis
Nazneen, S., Hussain, S., Afridi, M., & Ahmad, S. (2026) · Pakistan Journal of Social Science Review
Boonma, M. (2025) · Nakhon Ratchasima Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences
Goal Orientations and Engagement in Chinese University EFL Learning: Evidence from SEM and LPA
He, X. (2026) · Language Teaching and Educational Research · doi:10.35207/later.1996510
Mindsets von Schüler*innen im Physikunterricht
Goldhorn, L. (2026) · Logos Verlag Berlin eBooks · doi:10.30819/6146
Wei, Q. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1969912
Zhao, J., & Zhang, Q. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1913633
Task Sequencing and Emotional Dynamics: Anxiety and Enjoyment in Assignment-Based Writing Assessment
Anbreen, T. (2026) · English language teaching · doi:10.1007/978-981-95-9805-2_8
Mahapoonyanont, N., Phinla, W., & Phinla, W. (2024) · Journal of Education Mahasarakham University
Wongpem, W., Rattanaraj, P., & Vongprasert, J. (2026) · Buabundit Journal of Educatioal Administration
การสร้างและทดสอบประสิทธิผลของโปรแกรมส่งเสริมพฤติกรรมนวัตกรรม สำหรับผู้ประกอบการร้านอาหาร
Charoenviangvetchakit, P., Poonpol, P., & Junprasert, T. (2026) · Journal of Management Science Chiangrai Rajabhat University
Suominen, A. (2026) · UTUPub (University of Turku)
Kruger, M. (2024) · Nelson Mandela University Research Repository
von Svetlik, J., & Mikkola, A. (2026) · UTUPub (University of Turku)
Bourgeois, M., Rossi, S., Montcharmont, C., Mortier, A., Lanoë, C., & Lubin, A. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.7576415
Effective Communication and Academic Success for International Students
Bjorn, G., & Ma, C. F. (2026) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003617419
Ojala, H., Tuominen, H., Niemivirta, M., & Huikku, J. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1837226
Mindsets linguísticos e feedback no ensino de língua adicional : um estudo bibliográfico
Carvalho, L. S. (2026) · Lume (Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul)
Dahal, J. (2026) · Education Quarterly · doi:10.3126/jeqtu.v6i1.100599
González-Olivares, Á. L., Chicharro, M. D. C. D. A., Blázquez, E. P., & Rocha, A. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1925054
Lay Literary Theory and Its Investigation through Digital Social Reading
Kröncke, M. (2026) · Journal of Literary Theory · doi:10.1515/jlt-2026-3005
MASTERY GOAL ORIENTATIONAND SELF-EFFICACY AS PREDICTORS OF ACADEMIC STRESS IN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
Fahid, M. F. R., Fathiyah, K. N., & Fadilla, I. R. (2025) · World Psychology
Baso, A. R., Ansar, A., & Syahruddin, S. (2026) · Bata Ilyas Educational Management Review
Yang, Y., van Knippenberg, D., Pieterse, A. N., & Li, J. (2026) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-026-10161-9
Chusanachoti, R., & Matyakhan, T. (2026) · Language Testing in Asia · doi:10.1186/s40468-026-00477-x
Nasrudin, E., Sahroni, D., & Agustin, E. (2025) · Sciences du Nord Humanities and Social Sciences · doi:10.71238/snhss.v2i02.203
Strategic Creativity for Leaders(hip)
Fazlagić, J., & Jędrych, E. (2026) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003785545
Reid, H. J. (2026) · Digital Commons (Liberty University)
Cardinali, S., Romoli, A., & Severini, S. (2026) · The Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice · doi:10.1080/10696679.2026.2747024
Wu, Y., & 안도희Ahn, D. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1954883
The Effect of Promoting High Expectations on Teachers’ Feedback to Students
Copur‐Gencturk, Y., Thacker, I., & Cimpian, J. R. (2026) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x261492287
Emotion Beyond Bias: Affective and Cultural Scaffolding in Self-Regulation and Metacognition
Conti, A., Bortolotti, A., Crociata, A., Tartari, M., & Sacco, P. L. (2026) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence14100268
Zhou, T., Liao, Y., Cheng, X., 刘丽薇, & Chen, W. (2026) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2026.102498
Misguided Convictions? From Maladaptive Beliefs About Emotions to Conspiracy Theories Endorsement
Molenda, Z., Marchlewska, M., Podsiadłowski, W., Karakula, A., & Rogoza, M. (2026) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.70128
Islamic Religiosity and Learning Motivation in Indonesian University Students
Sulalah, Rohman, M., Fatima, S., & Ahmad, M. (2026) · Journal of behavioural sciences · doi:10.68014/jbs.v36i01.512
Shinde, S., Tandon, A., & Chaudhry, S. (2026) · Organizational Behavior Teaching Review · doi:10.1177/10525629261492668
Leaving on a High or Low Note? An Achievement Goal Perspective on Executive Retirement
Huang, Z., Wang, K., Lu, B., Wang, M., Hill, A., & Pryor, C. G. (2026) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/peps.70047
Xu, S., Wei, W., & Li, H. (2026) · Personnel Review · doi:10.1108/pr-05-2025-0485
Children and Young Peoples’ Motivation to Develop Musical Skills
Creech, A., & Hallam, S. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198976936.003.0032
Sutha, J. (2026) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2026.103858
Соревновательные механизмы в высшем образовании: этическая модель оценки допустимости
Петрович, Г. А. (n.d.) · CyberLeninK (CyberLeninka)
Обоснование дидактического статуса состязательного подхода к образованию
Петрович, Г. А., & Berezhnova, E. V. (n.d.) · CyberLeninK (CyberLeninka)
Merica, C. B., Egan, C. A., & Rose, S. (2026) · Journal of Physical Education Recreation & Dance · doi:10.1080/07303084.2026.2721280
Ciptaning, W. G. I., Chintyasari, Fitri, D., & Beni, B. (2026) · Pendas Jurnal Ilmiah Pendidikan Dasar · doi:10.23969/jp.v11i4.71042
Student Effort and Success Attribution across Countries
Gronberg, T. J., Jansen, D. W., & Liu, L. (2026) · Atlantic Economic Journal · doi:10.1007/s11293-026-09867-1
Threat appraisal mediates the link between self-uncertainty and group identification
Peterson, M. E., Hogg, M. A., Johnson, M. D., Woodcock, A., Hernandez, P. R., & Schultz, P. W. (2026) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2026.2753191
Caring well? How dementia mindsets relate to work-related well-being among health care professionals
Vervaeke, M., Mandigout, S., & Bernache‐Assollant, I. (2026) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2026.2753027
Putro, H. Y. S., Ainah, N., Sulistiyana, S., & Riva’i, M. F. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-11298742/v1
Creative process engagement as mediator between creative mindsets and creative performance
Vargas-Barrera, F., Barajas-Portas, K., & Barrón, L. F. (2026) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2026.102407
Music Performance Anxiety, volume II
(2026) · Frontiers research topics · doi:10.3389/978-2-8325-8918-2
Santos, R. F. (2020) · Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT)
Pedings-Behling, K. (2026) · Scholar Commons (University of South Carolina)
Catalyzing Chemistry Success: Pairing Growth Mindset and Learning Strategies Interventions
Morales, N. A., Pak, E. A. R., Diaz, J. G., Zadeh, C., Rojas, O., Lopez, M., Villafañe, S. M., Chan, J. Y. K., & Li, Y. (2026) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.6c00256
Hajjaj, B. (2026) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781042017874
谢颖, Hong, W., Chen, G., & Foong, C. C. (2026) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2026.1969574
When signaling AI-generated content increases charitable giving: the role of consumer mindsets
Baek, T. H., Park, J., & Jhang, J. (2026) · International Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/02650487.2026.2751351
A scoping review of teachers’ growth mindset in primary and secondary education
Peng, Y., Xie, W., & Yip, S. Y. (2026) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2026.100867
Hansen, K. Y., Radišić, J., & Jonsson, A. (2026) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.70133
Beyond Peer Comparison: Social Contexts, Labels and Identity Development in Adolescence
Chhabra, A. (2026) · International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology (IJISRT) · doi:10.38124/ijisrt/26aug407
Pyle, A. S., Sellnow, T. L., & Sellnow, D. D. (2026) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003654827
Yang, H., Shu, W., & Wang, S. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1914786
Ramsay, D. (n.d.) · Murdoch University Research Portal
Okul Öncesi Öğretmenlerinin Bir Davranış Yönetimi Olarak Övgü Hakkındaki Görüşleri
Ercan, Z. G., & Delen, H. (2026) · Milli Eğitim Dergisi · doi:10.37669/milliegitim.1632469
Catalyzing Innovation in Rural-Serving Community Colleges
Eddy, P. L., & Barricklow, Z. (2026) · Higher education · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-20759-3_5-1
Tosuntaş, Ş. B., & Danışman, Ş. (2026) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence14110275
Manik, A. (2026) · Dublin City University Open Access Institutional Repository (Dublin City University)
Akgül, B. M., Karaküçük, S., & Livmercan, E. (2026) · Journal of International Students · doi:10.32674/esgj7z19
Gürpınar, N. (2025) · Dspace Repository (Marmara Üniversitesi)
Beyond access: guided versus free ChatGPT use and learning outcomes in higher education
Nazır, T. (2026) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2026.2759148
ПСИХОЛОГІЧНИЙ ЗМІСТ КОГНІТИВНИХ РЕСУРСІВ СУБ’ЄКТА ДІЯЛЬНОСТІ
Галела, А. Ю., & Нечепурук, Р. Р. (2026) · Вісник ХНПУ імені Г С Сковороди Психология · doi:10.34142/23129387.2026.75.07
КОГНІТИВНІ ЧИННИКИ ОСОБИСТІСНОГО ДИНАМІЗМУ ЗДОБУВАЧІВ ОСВІТИ
Большакова, А. М. (2026) · Вісник ХНПУ імені Г С Сковороди Психология · doi:10.34142/23129387.2026.75.03
Simulating motivated cognition
Gevarter, W. B. (1991) · NASA STI Repository (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
BELIEVING BECOMES DOING: DEVELOPING TEACHER, PRINCIPAL, AND COLLECTIVE EFFICACY IN MIDDLE SCHOOL
Soisson, B. (2013) · Scholars' Bank (University of Oregon)
Zukunftsdenken und Bewertungsreaktionen
Scherer, M. (2001)
ATTITUDE ALIGNMENT AMONG COUPLES IN THE FACE OF BELONGING THREAT
Reid, C. A. (2011) · VCU Scholars Compass (Virginia Commonwealth University) · doi:10.25772/v1me-wm89
Frost, A. (2002) · The Keep (Eastern Illinois University)
Seder, L. S. (2001) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona)
Wpływ koncepcji natury ludzkiej menedżera na ocenę podwładnych
Lachowicz‐Tabaczek, K. (2001) · Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu
When Your Culture Advocates You : the Effect of Cultural Work Values on Performance
Taghavi, S. (2015) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/897d0c1czd22dz4939z949ez6eb91085e97c
Daniel, K. M. (2015) · Digital Commons (Liberty University)
Validity Dynamism Of Personality Traits In The Selection Context
Shao, L. (2011) · eCommons (Cornell University)
Turning Points: Stories of How Students Get Beyond Antipathy Toward an Academic Course
Morse, C. L. (2010) · ScholarsArchive (Brigham Young University)
Abbott, J.-A. (2005) · Swinburne figshare (Swinburne University of Technology) · doi:10.25916/sut.26262935
Evaluate Me: The Effects of Anticipated Rapid Feedback and Beliefs about Ability on Performance
Chang, J. C. (2015) · TopSCHOLAR (Western Kentucky University)
Overcoming Obstacles: The Adaptive Nature of Abstract Construals
Elizaga, R. A. (2009) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network)
Bood, M., van Dam, S., & Hoogerwaard, T. (2011) · Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University)
The Effects of the Type of Skill Assessment on the Motivation of Students in Physical Education
Johnson, T. G. (2004) · ScholarsArchive (Brigham Young University)
Effects of the unit organizer routine in seventh grade science
SLAGLE, C. G. (2012) · Montana State University ScholarWorks (Montana State University)
de Souza, M. A. (2006) · Americanae (AECID Library)
Does Learning from Others in a Classroom Setting Enhance or Damage Creativity
Yan, J., Wan, Y., Zheng, X., Han, X., Wong, K., & He, W. (2015) · Journal of the Association for Information Systems
Elite leadership in sport: A tale of two captains
Snape, J., & Lavallee, D. E. (2008) · Sport & Exercise Psychology Review · doi:10.53841/bpssepr.2008.4.1.39
Motivation Orientation and School Readiness in Children Served by Head Start
Bustamante, A. S. (2014)
Smith, N. (2015) · University of Birmingham Institutional Research Archive (University of Birmingham)
Salis, A. S., Monahan, T., & Armstrong, D. (2015) · OpenCommons - UConn (University of Connecticut)
ON GETTING BETTER AND WORKING HARD: USING IMPROVEMENT AS A HEURISTIC FOR JUDGING EFFORT
Gamal, M. E. (2015) · Scholars Commons (Wilfrid Laurier University)
Sam, D. L., & Berry, J. W. (2006) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511489891.029
Individualisierte Informatik-Vorprojekte im Übergang Schule-Hochschule
Capovilla, D., Hoffmann, E., Waechter, C., & Hubwieser, P. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-06022-0_5
Metadata
- Authors
- Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L.
- ORCID
- Dweck, Carol S.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1988-04
- Volume
- 95
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 256-273
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2167884222
- Semantic Scholar
- bea6bdcd90212431bc464f638431b39ff6427855
- Cited by
- 9,745
- References
- 87
- Citations by year
- 2026: 382 · 2025: 462 · 2024: 423 · 2023: 421 · 2022: 477 · 2021: 472 · 2020: 566 · 2019: 435 · 2018: 386 · 2017: 407 · 2016: 417 · 2015: 392 · 2014: 403 · 2013: 361 · 2012: 385
- FWCI
- 55.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Keywords
- mastery orientation, learned helplessness, mindset, motivation, personality, goal orientation, adaptive and maladaptive behavior, social cognitive model, cognitive processes, emotional processing, behavioral patterns
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
