What do the hands externalize in simple arithmetic?
Abstract
In 4 experiments, the authors examined the use of the hands in simple arithmetic tasks. Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrated that pointing increases both accuracy and speed in counting arrays of items, whether those items are identical or distinctive. Experiment 3 demonstrated that individuals tend to nod their heads when not allowed to point and that nodding is associated with greater accuracy, suggesting that pointing is functional for reasons other than simply providing additional visual information. Experiment 4 examined changes in speech when adding arrays of digits, depending on whether participants were allowed to use their hands to manipulate the tokens on which the digits were presented. Taken together, the results of these experiments are consistent with recent research suggesting that gesture can serve cognitive functions and that the hands can support the binding of representational elements to their functional roles by providing phase markers for cyclic cognitive processes.
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Beneficial effects on immediate task performance in terms of speed and/or accuracy have been observed across a large variety of tasks.
“Such beneficial effects on immediate task performance in terms of speed and/or accuracy have been observed across a large variety of tasks (e.g., arithmetic tasks, see Carlson et al., 2007; Goldin-Meadow et al., 2001; or reading, see Risko et al., 2014).”
From Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory (2021) · cites this paper as Carlson et al., 2007
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- Authors
- Carlson, R. A., Avraamides, M. N., Cary, M., & Strasberg, S.
- Affiliations
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- University of Cyprus (CY)
- University of Wisconsin–La Crosse (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 2007
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 747-756
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W2081679770
- Cited by
- 87
- References
- 18
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 2.21
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Hearing Impairment and Communication
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Embodied and Extended Cognition
- Keywords
- hand gestures, pointing, arithmetic, counting, nodding, mental representation
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Cognition, Female, Gestures, Hand, Humans, Male, Mathematics
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