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Does stereotype threat affect test performance of minorities and women? A meta-analysis of experimental evidence.
Abstract
A meta-analysis of stereotype threat effects was conducted and an overall mean effect size of |.26| was found, but true moderator effects existed. A series of hierarchical moderator analyses evidenced differential effects of race- versus gender-based stereotypes. Women experienced smaller performance decrements than did minorities when tests were difficult: mean ds = |.36| and |.43|, respectively. For women, subtle threat-activating cues produced the largest effect, followed by blatant and moderately explicit cues: ds = |.24|, |.18|, and |.17|, respectively; explicit threat-removal strategies were more effective in reducing stereotype threat effects than subtle ones: ds = |.14| and |.33|, respectively. For minorities, moderately explicit stereotype threat-activating cues produced the largest effect, followed by blatant and subtle cues: ds = |.64|, |.41|, and |.22|, respectively; explicit removal strategies enhanced stereotype threat effects compared with subtle strategies: ds = |.80| and |.34|, respectively. In addition, stereotype threat affected moderately math-identified women more severely than highly math-identified women: ds = |.52| and |.29|, respectively; low math-identified women suffered the least from stereotype threat: d= |.11|. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.
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“even though the initial studies on stereotype threat found statistically significant effects (Nguyen and Ryan [2008]), subsequent re-analyses (Zigerell [2017]), and other studies failed to replicate them (Finnigan and Corker [2016]; Flore et al. [2019]).”
From Science Communication and the Problematic Impact of Descriptive Norms (2023) · cites this paper as Nguyen and Ryan [2008]
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Cites a retracted work: 10.1037/0022-3514.91.2.243
InfoThe cited work was retracted on 2013-01-01 (notice 10.1037/a0031270), not before this paper was published (2008).
Cited work 10.1037/0022-3514.91.2.243 · retracted 2013-01-01 · notice 10.1037/a0031270 · this paper published 2008
Cites a retracted work: 10.1002/ejsp.310
InfoThe cited work was retracted on 2012-10-05 (notice 10.1002/ejsp.1919), not before this paper was published (2008).
Cited work 10.1002/ejsp.310 · retracted 2012-10-05 · notice 10.1002/ejsp.1919 · this paper published 2008
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Metadata
- Authors
- Nguyen, H.-H. D., & Ryan, A. M.
- Affiliations
- California State University, Long Beach (US)
- Michigan State University (US)
- ORCID
- Ryan, Ann Marie
- Venue
- Journal of Applied Psychology
- Published
- 2008
- Volume
- 93
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1314-1334
- ISSN
- 0021-9010 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1854
- OpenAlex
- W2170594921
- Cited by
- 913
- References
- 124
- Citations by year
- 2026: 27 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 50 · 2023: 38 · 2022: 73 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 72 · 2019: 81 · 2018: 68 · 2017: 82 · 2016: 55 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 54 · 2013: 44 · 2012: 41
- FWCI
- 7.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Applied Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Michigan State University
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Career Development and Diversity
- Keywords
- stereotype threat, test performance, women, racial minorities, gender stereotypes, racial stereotypes
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Employee Performance Appraisal, Female, Humans, Male, Minority Groups, Psychological Tests, Stereotyping
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