Cited by 913Social and Intergroup PsychologyEducation, Achievement, and GiftednessCareer Development and Diversity

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Does stereotype threat affect test performance of minorities and women? A meta-analysis of experimental evidence.

Nguyen, Hannah-Hanh D., Ryan, Ann Marie·2008·Journal of Applied Psychology

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Abstract

A meta-analysis of stereotype threat effects was conducted and an overall mean effect size of |.26| was found, but true moderator effects existed. A series of hierarchical moderator analyses evidenced differential effects of race- versus gender-based stereotypes. Women experienced smaller performance decrements than did minorities when tests were difficult: mean ds = |.36| and |.43|, respectively. For women, subtle threat-activating cues produced the largest effect, followed by blatant and moderately explicit cues: ds = |.24|, |.18|, and |.17|, respectively; explicit threat-removal strategies were more effective in reducing stereotype threat effects than subtle ones: ds = |.14| and |.33|, respectively. For minorities, moderately explicit stereotype threat-activating cues produced the largest effect, followed by blatant and subtle cues: ds = |.64|, |.41|, and |.22|, respectively; explicit removal strategies enhanced stereotype threat effects compared with subtle strategies: ds = |.80| and |.34|, respectively. In addition, stereotype threat affected moderately math-identified women more severely than highly math-identified women: ds = |.52| and |.29|, respectively; low math-identified women suffered the least from stereotype threat: d= |.11|. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

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Retracted
Retracted:It's all in the timing: measuring emotional reactions to stereotype threat before and after taking a test
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Authors: Nguyen, H.-H. D., & Ryan, A. M.
Affiliations: California State University, Long Beach (US)
Michigan State University (US)
ORCID: Ryan, Ann Marie
Venue: Journal of Applied Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2008
Volume: 93
Issue: 6
Pages: 1314-1334
ISSN: 0021-9010 (ISSN-L)
1939-1854
DOI: 10.1037/a0012702
OpenAlex: W2170594921
Cited by: 913
References: 124
Citations by year: 2026: 27 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 50 · 2023: 38 · 2022: 73 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 72 · 2019: 81 · 2018: 68 · 2017: 82 · 2016: 55 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 54 · 2013: 44 · 2012: 41
FWCI: 7.91
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Applied Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Science Foundation
Michigan State University
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Career Development and Diversity
Keywords: stereotype threat, test performance, women, racial minorities, gender stereotypes, racial stereotypes
MeSH terms: Affect, Employee Performance Appraisal, Female, Humans, Male, Minority Groups, Psychological Tests, Stereotyping

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Does stereotype threat affect test performance of minorities and women? A meta-analysis of experimental evidence.

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