The DOI matches its Crossref record; 56 of the 58 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Effect sizes for growth-modeling analysis for controlled clinical trials in the same metric as for classical analysis
Open accessAbstract
The use of growth-modeling analysis (GMA)--including hierarchical linear models, latent growth models, and general estimating equations--to evaluate interventions in psychology, psychiatry, and prevention science has grown rapidly over the last decade. However, an effect size associated with the difference between the trajectories of the intervention and control groups that captures the treatment effect is rarely reported. This article first reviews 2 classes of formulas for effect sizes associated with classical repeated-measures designs that use the standard deviation of either change scores or raw scores for the denominator. It then broadens the scope to subsume GMA and demonstrates that the independent groups, within-subjects, pretest-posttest control-group, and GMA designs all estimate the same effect size when the standard deviation of raw scores is uniformly used. Finally, the article shows that the correct effect size for treatment efficacy in GMA--the difference between the estimated means of the 2 groups at end of study (determined from the coefficient for the slope difference and length of study) divided by the baseline standard deviation--is not reported in clinical trials.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Effect sizes for each longitudinal analysis were computed using the formula provided by Feingold (2009) and interpreted using Cohen (1988)’s specifications.”
From Impact of dialectical behavior therapy versus community treatment by experts on emotional experience, expression, and acceptance in borderline personality disorder (2014) · cites this paper as Feingold, 2009
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“LGCM is accepted as a suitable framework for use in the evaluation of efficacy in psychological interventions [22]”
From Large-scale dissemination of internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy for youth anxiety: Feasibility and acceptability study (2018) · cites this paper as [22]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“LGCM is accepted as a suitable framework for use in the evaluation of efficacy in psychological interventions [22] and allows determination of whether the temporal trajectory from the baseline to Session 10 is significant, using data from all participants rather than just the treatment completers [22].”
From Large-scale dissemination of internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy for youth anxiety: Feasibility and acceptability study (2018) · cites this paper as [22]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences
Cohen, J. (1990) · Computers Environment and Urban Systems · doi:10.1016/0198-9715(90)90050-4 · Cited by 65,417
Maximum Likelihood from Incomplete Data Via the EM Algorithm
Dempster, A. P., Laird, N. M., & Rubin, D. B. (1977) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B: Statistical Methodology · doi:10.1111/j.2517-6161.1977.tb01600.x · Cited by 50,444
Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.).
Lachenbruch, P. A., & Cohen, J. (1989) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2290095 · Cited by 37,421
Statistical principles in experimental design.
Winer, B. J. (1962) · McGraw-Hill Book Company · doi:10.1037/11774-000 · Cited by 27,137
Snedecor, G. W., Cochran, W. G., & STOUT, B. B. (1939) · Soil Science · doi:10.1097/00010694-193902000-00006 · Cited by 19,423
Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods.
Longford, N. T., Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1993) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2075823 · Cited by 18,773
Longitudinal data analysis using generalized linear models
LIANG, K.-Y., & ZEGER, S. L. (1986) · Biometrika · doi:10.1093/biomet/73.1.13 · Cited by 18,550
(2002) · Cited by 13,211
Applied Longitudinal Data Analysis: Modeling Change and Event Occurrence
Singer, J. D., & Willett, J. B. (2003) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195152968.001.0001 · Cited by 10,647
Wasserman, S. S., Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1988) · Journal of Educational Statistics · doi:10.2307/1164953 · Cited by 10,377
(2000) · Cited by 9,198
Snedecor, G. W., & Cochran, W. G. (1967) · Cited by 6,573
Multilevel analysis techniques and applications
Hox, J. J., Moerbeek, M., & van de Schoot, R. (2002) · Cited by 6,006
Methods of Meta-Analysis: Correcting Error and Bias in Research Findings
Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (2015) · doi:10.4135/9781483398105 · Cited by 5,542
Meta-Analytic Procedures for Social Research.
Metcalfe, A., & Rosenthal, R. (1994) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series D (The Statistician) · doi:10.2307/2348600 · Cited by 4,249
Meta-analysis in social research
(1982) · Evaluation and Program Planning · doi:10.1016/0149-7189(82)90011-8 · Cited by 3,896
Morris, S. B., & DeShon, R. P. (2002) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.7.1.105 · Cited by 2,502
Estimating effect sizes from pretest-posttest-control group designs
Morris, S. B. (2008) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428106291059 · Cited by 2,133
Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (1993) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.48.12.1181 · Cited by 2,033
Olejnik, S., & Algina, J. (2003) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.8.4.434 · Cited by 1,622
Dimidjian, S., Hollon, S. D., Dobson, K. S., Schmaling, K. B., Kohlenberg, R. J., Addis, M. E., Gallop, R., McGlinchey, J. B., Markley, D. K., Gollan, J. K., et al. (2006) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.74.4.658 · Cited by 1,607 · cited 1×
“…= (t2/( t2 + df))1/2 4.15 Atkins, Eldridge et al., 2005 d = β/(τ)1/2 29.36 Brown et al. 2005 d = β/(τ)1/2 29.36 Christensen et al., 2004 d = β/(τ)1/2 29.36 Dimidjian et al., 2006 d = β/(τ)1/2 29.36 Fraser et al., 2005 d = β/(τ + σ2)1/2 .89 Rye et al., 2005 d = β/σ .89 Sandler et al., 2003 d = t…”
Influential(2018) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781506326139.n404 · Cited by 1,538
Gueorguieva, R., & Krystal, J. H. (2004) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.61.3.310 · Cited by 1,529
Standards of Evidence: Criteria for Efficacy, Effectiveness and Dissemination
Flay, B. R., Biglan, A., Boruch, R. F., Castro, F. G., Gottfredson, D., Kellam, S., Mościcki, E. K., Schinke, S., Valentine, J. C., & Ji, P. (2005) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-005-5553-y · Cited by 1,338
Petitti, D. B. (1994) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 869
Cognitive processing therapy for veterans with military-related posttraumatic stress disorder.
Monson, C. M., Schnurr, P. P., Resick, P. A., Friedman, M. J., Young‐Xu, Y., & Stevens, S. P. (2006) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.74.5.898 · Cited by 860
Muthén, B., & Curran, P. J. (1997) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.2.4.371 · Cited by 768
Some Conceptual and Statistical Issues in Analysis of Longitudinal Psychiatric Data
Gibbons, R. D. (1993) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820210073009 · Cited by 719
Weisz, J. R., Jensen-Doss, A., & Hawley, K. M. (2006) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.61.7.671 · Cited by 560
Raudenbush, S. W., & Liu, X.-F. (2001) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.6.4.387 · Cited by 455
When effect sizes disagree: The case of r and d.
McGrath, R. E., & Meyer, G. J. (2006) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.11.4.386 · Cited by 402
Christensen, A., Atkins, D. C., Berns, S., Wheeler, J., Baucom, D. H., & Simpson, L. E. (2004) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.72.2.176 · Cited by 380
How Stress Management Improves Quality of Life After Treatment for Breast Cancer.
Antoni, M. H., Lechner, S. C., Kazi, A., Wimberly, S. R., Sifre, T., Urcuyo, K. R., Phillips, K. K., Glück, S., & Carver, C. S. (2006) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.74.6.1152 · Cited by 366
Sandler, I. N., Ayers, T. S., Wolchik, S. A., Tein, J.-Y., Kwok, O.-M., Haine, R. A., Twohey-Jacobs, J., Suter, J., Lin, K., Padgett-Jones, S., et al. (2003) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.71.3.587 · Cited by 333
How Do Outcomes in a Specified Parent Training Intervention Maintain or Wane Over Time?
DeGarmo, D. S., Patterson, G. R., & Forgatch, M. S. (2004) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1023/b:prev.0000023078.30191.e0 · Cited by 298
Using Multilevel Models to Analyze Couple and Family Treatment Data: Basic and Advanced Issues.
Atkins, D. C. (2005) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/0893-3200.19.1.98 · Cited by 276
Gottman, J. M. (1995) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 239
Schulz, M. S., Cowan, C. P., & Cowan, P. A. (2006) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.74.1.20 · Cited by 224
The Application of Latent Curve Analysis to Testing Developmental Theories in Intervention Research
Curran, P. J., & Muthén, B. (1999) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1023/a:1022137429115 · Cited by 202
Brown, E. C., Catalano, R. F., Fleming, C. B., Haggerty, K. P., & Abbott, R. D. (2005) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.73.4.699 · Cited by 200
Can group interventions facilitate forgiveness of an ex-spouse? A randomized clinical trial.
Rye, M. S., Pargäment, K. I., Pan, W., Yingling, D. W., Shogren, K. A., & Ito, M. (2005) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.73.5.880 · Cited by 182
Basic Meta-Analysis: Procedures and Programs
Mullen, B. R., & Rosenthal, R. (1985) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 180
van Lier, P. A. C., Muthén, B., van der Sar, R. M., & Crijnen, A. A. M. (2004) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.72.3.467 · Cited by 173
Fräser, M. W., Galinsky, M. J., Smokowski, P. R., Day, S. H., Terzian, M., Rose, R. A., & Guo, S. (2005) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.73.6.1045 · Cited by 164
Tolan, P. H., Gorman‐Smith, D., & Henry, D. B. (2004) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.72.5.855 · Cited by 146
Infidelity and Behavioral Couple Therapy: Optimism in the Face of Betrayal.
Atkins, D. C., Eldridge, K. A., Baucom, D. H., & Christensen, A. (2005) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.73.1.144 · Cited by 120 · cited 1×
“An additional study (Sandler, Ayers, Wolchik, Tein, Kwok, et al., 2003) used an effect-size formula that was algebraically equivalent to that used by Atkins et al. (2005) and Schultz et al. (2006) but was expressed in the d rather than r metric.”
MethodFeingold, A. (1995) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.50.1.5 · Cited by 115
Self-citationTrudeau, L., Spoth, R. L., Lillehoj, C. J., Redmond, C. R., & Wickrama, K. A. S. (2003) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1023/a:1022926332514 · Cited by 89
Feingold, A., Kerr, D., & Capaldi, D. M. (2008) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/0893-3200.22.3.429 · Cited by 83
Self-citationTelephone-based coping skills training for patients awaiting lung transplantation
Blumenthal, J. A., Babyak, M. A., Carney, R. M., Keefe, F. J., Davis, R. D., LaCaille, R. A., Parekh, P. I., Freedland, K. E., Trulock, E., & Palmer, S. M. (2006) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.74.3.535 · Cited by 82
Prediction of response to treatment in a randomized clinical trial of marital therapy.
Atkins, D. C., Berns, S. B., George, W. H., Doss, B. D., Gattis, K. S., & Christensen, A. (2005) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.73.5.893 · Cited by 77
Toward improved statistical reporting in the journal of consulting and clinical psychology.
Fidler, F., Cumming, G., Thomason, N., Pannuzzo, D., Smith, J., Fyffe, P., Edmonds, H., Harrington, C., & Schmitt, R. (2005) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.73.1.136 · Cited by 67
Clinical Trials in the Journal of Pediatric Psychology: Applying the CONSORT Statement
Stinson, J. (2003) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsg001 · Cited by 64
Beevers, C. G., & Miller, I. W. (2005) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.73.1.68 · Cited by 38
Assessment of journals in social science psychology.
Feingold, A. (1989) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.44.6.961 · Cited by 24
Self-citationFeingold, A., Oliveto, A. H., Schottenfeld, R. S., & Kosten, T. R. (2002) · American Journal on Addictions · doi:10.1080/10550490290087884 · Cited by 9
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 58 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Becker BJ Synthesizing standardized mean-change scores. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology 1988 41 257 278
- Gibbons RD Hedeker DR Davis JM Estimation of effect sizes from a series of experiments involving paired comparisons. Journal of Educational Statistics 1993 18 271 279
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Stice, E., Marti, C. N., & Rohde, P. (2013) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0030679 · Cited by 822
Bamelis, L. L. M., Evers, S. M. A. A., Spinhoven, P., & Arntz, A. (2014) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12040518 · Cited by 497
Arch, J. J., Eifert, G. H., Davies, C., Vilardaga, J. C. P., Rose, R. D., & Craske, M. G. (2012) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028310 · Cited by 443
Twohig, M. P., Hayes, S. C., Plumb, J. C., Pruitt, L. D., Collins, A. B., Hazlett-Stevens, H., & Woidneck, M. R. (2010) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0020508 · Cited by 434
“Effect sizes for MMRM outcomes were calculated as specified by Wackerly, Mendenhall, and Scheaffer (2008) and for HLM by examining end-point outcomes as suggested by Feingold (2009).”
MethodNeacsiu, A. D., Eberle, J. W., Kramer, R., Wiesmann, T., & Linehan, M. M. (2014) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2014.05.005 · Cited by 394
Metadata
- Authors
- Feingold, A.
- Affiliations
- Oregon Social Learning Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Feingold, Alan
- Venue
- Psychological Methods
- Published
- 2009
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 43-53
- ISSN
- 1082-989X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1463
- PMC
- PMC2712654
- OpenAlex
- W2089811587
- Cited by
- 851
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 56 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 61 · 2023: 54 · 2022: 56 · 2021: 72 · 2020: 61 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 56 · 2017: 51 · 2016: 65 · 2015: 65 · 2014: 63 · 2013: 35 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 13.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Psychological Methods (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD046364)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Clinical Trials
- Keywords
- effect size, growth models, latent growth curve models, multilevel analysis, repeated measures designs, change scores, treatment effects, intervention efficacy, pretest-posttest control group design
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Psychology, Social, Research Design, Meta-Analysis as Topic, Reproducibility of Results, Models, Statistical, Linear Models, Treatment Outcome, Controlled Clinical Trials as Topic
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
