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Should I stay or should I switch? A cost-benefit analysis of voluntary language switching in young and aging bilinguals
Open accessAbstract
Bilinguals spontaneously switch languages in conversation even though laboratory studies reveal robust cued language switching costs. The authors investigated how voluntary-switching costs might differ when switches are voluntary. Younger (Experiments 1-2) and older (Experiment 3) Spanish-English bilinguals named pictures in 3 conditions: (a) dominant-language only, (b) nondominant-language only, and (c) using "whatever language comes to mind" (in Experiment 2, "using each language about half the time"). Most bilinguals, particularly balanced bilinguals, voluntarily mixed languages even though switching was costly. Unlike with cued switching, voluntary switching sometimes facilitated responses, switch costs were not greater for the dominant language, and age effects on language mixing and switching were limited. This suggests that the freedom to mix languages voluntarily allows unbalanced and older bilinguals to function more like balanced and younger bilinguals. Voluntary switch costs reveal an expanded role for inhibitory control in bilingual language production and imply a mandatory separation by language in bilingual lexical selection.
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“Performance on these tasks reveals systematic deficits for bilingual participants, particularly in semantic fluency conditions [33–37], even if responses can be provided in either language [38].”
From Bilingualism: consequences for mind and brain (2012) · cites this paper as [38]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Gollan, T. H., & Ferreira, V. S.
- Affiliations
- University of California System (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition
- Published
- 2009
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 640-665
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- PMC
- PMC2864120
- OpenAlex
- W1990859675
- Cited by
- 485
- References
- 87
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 36 · 2019: 50 · 2018: 59 · 2017: 35 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 32 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 6.77
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01 HD050287)
- National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (DC00191)
- National Institutes of Health (R01 HD051030, P50 AG05131)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Categorization, perception, and language
- Keywords
- bilingual speech production, switch costs, age effects, Spanish-English bilinguals, code-mixing, inhibitory control, word choice, balanced bilingualism, picture naming
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Attention, Choice Behavior, Cues, Female, Humans, Language Development, Male, Middle Aged, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Reaction Time, Semantics, Verbal Learning, Volition, Multilingualism, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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