Repeated testing produces superior transfer of learning relative to repeated studying.

“Numerous studies have shown that a greater degree of initial learning generally increases positive transfer (e.g., Bruce, 1933; see Ellis, 1965), as does increasing the number and variability of training problems (e.g., Bassok & Holyoak, 1989; Gick & Holyoak, 1983; see Kimball & Holyoak, 2000).”

“…with simply reading the information) produces significant benefits on long-term learning and transfer of information (e.g., Roediger and Karpicke, 2006; Roediger and Butler, 2011; Butler and Roediger, 2007; Butler, 2010; Carpenter, 2012; Dunlosky et al., 2013; Rowland, 2014; Brame and Biel, 2015).”

“Several studies on the use of written tests have found that testing leads to more learning and better transfer of learning when compared to studying alone, but it is not clear if this transfers to performance-based tests (Butler 2010; Larsen et al. 2013).”

“Although this kind of tests presents satisfactory longterm retention results, they may entail negative consequences for the memory: due to their exposure to incorrect alternatives, the students can store false facts in the longterm memory, mainly if they do not receive feedback after giving their answers (Butler, Mars…”

“These posttests mainly assess retention, though tasks requiring relatively near transfer (e.g., Butler, 2010) could be included as well.”

“Meanwhile, participants in the control condition read an article about the Internet obtained from Butler (2010).”

“Repeated test-taking increases the transfer of learning [25] and improves long-term recall [28], and it even outperformed concept mapping for long-term retention in a previous study [26].”

“2018; Butler 2010; Grimaldi and Karpicke 2014; Karpicke and Blunt 2011; Roediger and Karpicke 2006; Rummer et al.”

“Higher-level understanding and transfer of the tested concepts was not assessed in the current study, although there is some evidence that retrieval can promote this type of knowledge as well (e.g., Butler, 2010; Carpenter, 2012).”

“This is in line with previous research in the testing-effect literature (e.g., Butler, 2010; Rohrer et al., 2010; see Roediger & Butler, 2010; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a, for reviews), and extend the findings from the verbal to the motor domain.”

“Testenhanced learning improves content retention (Larsen et al., 2009; Butler, 2010; McDaniel et al., 2011) and has a positive effect on examination scores (Olde Bekkink et al., 2012).”

“The benefit persists after a rather long interval (7 days; Chan, 2010) and even when the final test material is quite distant from the original material being quizzed (Butler, 2010).”

“Recent findings of a repeated testing effect on transfer items further suggest that there can also be a contribution to deep learning (e.g., Butler 2010; Dirkx et al. 2014; McDaniel et al. 2013).”

“Utilising self-tests, or test situations, stimulates active memory recall in place of simply rehearsing materials (testing effect, e.g. Butler, 2010; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006).”

“The benefits of taking a test to enhance performance in a later test, similar to the initial test, were studied under a wide range of different conditions (such as free or cued recall), using different materials (such as paired word or picture associated), different learners (such as children, young and adults), and d…”

“Retrieval practice refers to the act of retrieving information from memory (eg, solving a practice problem or answering a test question), which is a potent learning event.(16,17) Providing feedback increases the benefits of retrieval practice by correcting errors,(18) maintaining correct responses,(19) and increasing…”

“Maintaining such performance across content areas suggested the CAWA system did not prevent students from the transfer of learning which takes place between topic areas (Butler 2010; Haskell 2001).”

“Second, we asked subjects to answer 12 cued-recall questions designed to test their understanding for concepts contained in the passages they read (Butler, 2010).”

“re-attending a lecture) alone [6, 7], provided that the retrieval attempt was successful [8, 9].”

“…demonstrated when different subjects engaged in retrieval practice or restudy (e.g., Karpicke & Roediger, 2008; Pyc & Rawson, 2010), but also when the same subjects practiced some materials by means of retrieval practice and others by means of restudy (e.g., Butler, 2010; Zaromb & Roediger, 2010).”

“On a final test, students were better able to transfer their knowledge to questions about the structure of airplane wings (Butler, 2010).”

“For instance, studies show that the degree of mastery of the original content has an important role in transfer (Butler, 2010; McDaniel et al., 2007).”

“…of questions were included to replicate previous work showing retrieval practice enhances performance on both verbatim and higher-order questions (e.g., Blunt & Karpicke, 2014; Butler, 2010; Johnson & Mayer, 2009; Karpicke & Blunt, 2011; McDaniel, Howard, & Einstein, 2009; Smith & Karpicke, 2014).”

“Dedicated instructional designs implement test-enhanced learning by repeated testing and by feedback leading to self-regulation [7].”

“…their effectiveness in controlled laboratory based research and, recently, there has been an impetus for research on the use of these strategies in representative educational contexts (Agarwal and Roediger, 2018; Daniel, 2012; Daniel and Chew, 2013; Mayer, 2018, 2010; Rodriguez et al., 2021).”

“Comparison With Prior Work We are unaware of any prior studies similar to our study design and findings; however, in recent years, test-enhanced learning has been studied in various online educational settings [3,5,10,22].”

“Although testing traditionally has been used in education as a means to assess student learning, research has shown that testing also can be used to promote learning and long-term knowledge retention.(13-16) The ability of testing to promote learning and knowledge retention is known as “testing effect” or “retrieval p…”

“In educational measurement, learning effects can be expected when presenting the same item to a test-taker multiple times (Butler, 2010).”

“In other words, we predicted that the relatively short intense instructional period would be effective in improving performance; however, predicted that repeated practice and testing over time in the one-to-one setting would further support skills needed for transfer (Butler, 2010; Swanson & Deshler, 2003).”

“This finding is consistent with data from Butler (2010) and replicates observations made by Bjork et al. (2014), and by McDermott et al. (2014).”

“The tasks that participants will do in the study may be considered as “near transfer” since they will apply concepts from one context to another familiar context in the same domain (Butler 2010; Kulasegaram et al. 2012, 2017).”

“The “testing eff ect” is a robust fi nding—information that has been frequently tested is more readily recalled than untested information ( Carrier & Pashler, 1992 ; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006 ; Butler, 2010 ; Karpicke, 2012 ), even for preschool children ( Fritz, Morris, Nolan, & Singleton, 2007 ).”

“While there is some evidence that deliberate practice influences near transfer—transferring learning from one activity to a similar activity (Butler, 2010; Butler et al., 2017; Agarwal, 2019), learners likely need to engage in mental simulation or reflective meaning making to make larger contextual leaps.”

“This testing effect, or retrieval practice effect, has been replicated numerous times with stimuli ranging from paired associates to prose passages (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a) and is widely regarded as one of the most robust phenomena in learning science (Butler, 2010; Carpenter, 2012).”

“Recall on the immediate individual test was greater for learners who completed collaborative versus individual retrieval practice, and testing effect research has shown that greater retrieval success enhances subsequent retention (Butler, 2010; Butler, Karpicke, & Roediger, 2007; Butler & Roediger, 2007; Carrier & Pas…”

“…beyond the tested information itself to include conceptually related but nontested information presented in the same episode with the tested information (e.g., Butler, 2010; Carpenter, Pashler, & Vul, 2007; Chan, 2009, 2010; Chan, McDermott, & Roediger, 2006; but see Pan, Gopal, & Rickard, 2015).”

“Testing effect studies using short answer questions have almost exclusively assessed recall after relatively long retention intervals of days or weeks (e.g., Butler 2010; Duchastel 1981; Hinze and Wiley 2011; Kang et al. 2007; LaPorte and Voss 1975; Nungester and Duchastel 1982).”

“Prior research with non-ADHD samples has shown testing effects for educationally relevant materials and outcome measures (e.g., Butler, 2010; Carpenter, Pashler, & Cepeda, 2009; Rawson, Dunlosky, & Sciartelli, 2013).”

“The very act of giving students tests can result in significant learning gains, as active retrieval of information leads to better retention [1, 5, 12].”

“Learning outcomes other than memory retention such as transfer of learning, category induction, and problem-solving skills are being measured as well (e.g., Butler, 2010; Jacoby et al., 2010; Leahy et al., 2015).”

“Three expository passages were taken from Butler (2010). These passages pertained to the history of bread, the formation of tropical cyclones, and types of bats.”

“Furthermore, retrieval practice promotes the transfer of factual and conceptual knowledge to tests that require inferences to be drawn from the previously learned information (e.g., Butler, 2010; Chan, McDermott, & Roediger, 2006).”

“For instance, retrieval practice in comparison to restudy practice can enhance transfer of learning (Butler, 2010; Carpenter & Kelly, 2012), potentiate new learning (Arnold & McDermott, 2013; Pastötter, Schicker, Niedernhuber, & Bäuml, 2011), and insulate tested material against interference from…”

“Moreover, the benefits of quizzing extended to items that required transfer of knowledge, that is, items that were not exactly identical to the ones quizzed in class (see also Butler, 2010). The work by McDaniel et al. (2013) shows how our existing knowledge about retrieval practice can be directly integrated within r…”

“Testing appears to reduce the rate withwhich we forget information (Carpenter, Pashler, Wixted, & Vul, 2008; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a; Runquist, 1983; Wheeler, Ewers, & Buonanno, 2003; Wheeler & Roediger, 1992) and to improve inference and transfer on materials that go beyond the tested stimuli (Butler, 2010; Jacoby…”

“Study Texts The study texts were two scientific expository passages adapted from Butler (2010) on the topics of “cyclones” and “vaccines”.”

“Retrieval practice has been shown to benefit long-term retention of information learned under a variety of conditions (e.g., Butler, 2010; Karpicke & Roediger, 2008; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a; Van den Broek et al., 2013), although little research has compared across different learning conditions.”

“…work has shown that retrieval practice is such an effective learning strategy that even content that was not explicitly retrieved in a practice test, but was simply related to retrieved content, can also exhibit memory improvements (e.g., Butler, 2010; McDaniel et al., 2013; Rohrer et al., 2010).”

“The lack of transfer between cues in Experiment 2 may appear at odds with previous reports of retrieval practice transfer between retrieval cues and generalization from retrieval-based learning (Butler, 2010; Carpenter, Pashler, & Vul, 2006; McDaniel, Anderson, Derbish, & Morrisette, 2007; Rawson, Dunlosky, & Sciartel…”

“Reliability of the quantity can be determined by measuring the extent to which test or experiment yields the same result on repeated trials (Butler, 2010).”

“For instance, retrieval practice in comparison to restudy can improve organization of newly acquired knowledge (e.g., Zaromb & Roediger, 2010), enhance its transfer to other study contexts (e.g., Butler, 2010), and potentiate subsequent learning (e.g., Arnold & McDermott, 2013).”

“Regardless of the spacing, there is evidence to suggest that repeated retrieval sessions with corrective feedback improves long-term retention (Butler, 2010; Karpicke & Roediger, 2007b; Tse et al., 2010); for a review, see (Binks, 2018).”

“Indeed, practising multiple transfer tests could mask the development of specific representation (visual–spatial or motor) providing opportunities for a multicomponent representation (see Boutin et al., in press; Butler, 2010).”

“Much of the work was done in higher education contexts (Butler, 2010; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006) but more recently has been moving toward K–12 (McDaniel, Thomas, Agarwal, McDermott, & Roediger, 2013).”

“Tulving’s research on the effect of retrieval practice attracted the interest of other researchers who replicated the effect of retrieval practice using a wide range of verbal materials, including word lists (Carpenter & DeLosh, 2006), face-name pairings (Carpenter & DeLosh, 2005), paired-associate vocabulary (Carpent…”

“Using passages drawn from Wikipedia and similar online sources, Butler (2010) examined students’ knowledge transfer across the content domain described by Bar-nett and Ceci (2002).”

“Previous research showed that the direct testing effect generalises across various temporal contexts (increasing with longer retention intervals, Rowland, 2014), across knowledge domains (e.g., science, general knowledge; Butler, 2010; McDaniel et al., 2013), and across test formats (Bjork, Little, & Storm, 2014; Carp…”

“Spontaneous transfer (i.e., transfer without any provided hint) is often required of students in applied settings but research suggests such hints may be necessary to show benefit of retrieval practice (Butler, 2010).”

“Furthermore, final performance on a test appears better after retrieval practice even when the test requires inferences that go beyond the original information (Karpicke & Blunt, 2011) or domain (Butler, 2010) studied.”

“…in experimental settings shows that self-testing of the to-be-learned material, typically denoted as retrieval practice, increase students’ long-term retention and transfer of knowledge to new situations (Roediger and Karpicke, 2006; Butler, 2010; Weinstein et al., 2010; Agarwal et al., 2012).”