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Single-case experimental designs: a systematic review of published research and current standards

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Smith, Justin D.·2012·Psychological Methods

DOI 10.1037/a0029312PMC PMC3652808

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Abstract

This article systematically reviews the research design and methodological characteristics of single-case experimental design (SCED) research published in peer-reviewed journals between 2000 and 2010. SCEDs provide researchers with a flexible and viable alternative to group designs with large sample sizes. However, methodological challenges have precluded widespread implementation and acceptance of the SCED as a viable complementary methodology to the predominant group design. This article includes a description of the research design, measurement, and analysis domains distinctive to the SCED; a discussion of the results within the framework of contemporary standards and guidelines in the field; and a presentation of updated benchmarks for key characteristics (e.g., baseline sampling, method of analysis), and overall, it provides researchers and reviewers with a resource for conducting and evaluating SCED research. The results of the systematic review of 409 studies suggest that recently published SCED research is largely in accordance with contemporary criteria for experimental quality. Analytic method emerged as an area of discord. Comparison of the findings of this review with historical estimates of the use of statistical analysis indicates an upward trend, but visual analysis remains the most common analytic method and also garners the most support among those entities providing SCED standards. Although consensus exists along key dimensions of single-case research design, and researchers appear to be practicing within these parameters, there remains a need for further evaluation of assessment and sampling techniques and data analytic methods.

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Items 401–500 of 627

Functional connectivity as a neural correlate of cognitive rehabilitation programs’ efficacy: A systematic review
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“Furthermore, it is worth mentioning that methodologies other than randomized controlled trials, such as single case-studies or case series, are gaining strength in the scientific community and are of great value in the case of neurocognitive rehabilitation, for providing a more detailed perspective on the impact of th…”
Background
Play Therapy “Beat The Clock” (Mengalahkan Waktu)” untuk Meningkatkan Atensi Pada Anak Dengan Masalah Innatention
Yulilla, D., & Cahyono, R. (2022) · Psikostudia Jurnal Psikologi · doi:10.30872/psikostudia.v11i3.7714 · Cited by 4
“Metode single case menyediakan data kontrol yang bertujuan untuk melihat perbandingan pada subjek tertentu sebelum dan sesudah dilakukannya intervensi (Smith, 2012).”
Background
Special Education Teacher Candidates' Use of Evidence-Based Practices and Their Impact on Student Learning.
Heckaman, K. A., Ernest, J. M., & Scheffler, A. J. (2018) · SRATE journal · Cited by 4
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“For example, Smith ( 2012) found that out of all the reviewed SCEDs over a 10-year period, a staggering 52% did not report the analytical methods used.”
Rethinking coping in chronic pain: a systematic review and dynamic interaction model of coping
Blandhol, M., Lee, S. Y., & Ellingsen, D. (2026) · PAIN Reports · doi:10.1097/pr9.0000000000001421 · Cited by 4
“113 This method could investigate changes in coping processes during psychological interventions that target coping-related factors, relative to a within-subject baseline period.”
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Melles, H., Lemmens, L. H. J. M., & Jansen, A. T. M. (2025) · Eating Disorders · doi:10.1080/10640266.2025.2471218 · Cited by 3
“Changes in these variables that occur during phase B can then be causally linked to the intervention being studied, while maximizing internal and external validity (Kazdin, 2019, 2021; Onghena & Edgington, 2005; Smith, 2012).”
Assessing consistency of effects when applying multilevel models to single-case data
Manolov, R., & Ferron, J. M. (2020) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-020-01417-0 · Cited by 3
“Actually, several reviews of published SCED research suggest that multiple-baseline designs are the most commonly used designs (Hammond & Gast, 2010; Shadish & Sullivan, 2011; Smith, 2012), present in more than half of the articles reviewed.”
Background
The efficacy of mindfulness-based intervention in ameliorating externalizing behaviors and attentional concerns among college students
Sharma, S., & Palomares, R. S. (2021) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2021.1909038 · Cited by 3
Evaluation of an intensive voice treatment to reduce anterior drooling in children with cerebral palsy: Protocol for a concurrent multiple-baseline, single case experimental design study
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“SCEDs are a useful alternative experimental design choice when evaluating intervention effectiveness [46,47].”
Suppressing visual hallucinations in an adolescent by occipital transcranial magnetic stimulation: A single-case experimental research design
Bodén, R., Nilsson, J., Walles, I., Larsson, E. K. B., Kristiansen, I., Fällmar, D., & Persson, J. (2021) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2021.2017303 · Cited by 3
“The ﬁ rst part of this study is a single-case experimental research design (Smith, 2012), with repeated measures during and after alternating real and sham intervention.”
Method
Interventions précoces chez les enfants avec autisme : place du vidéo feedback. Des interventions comportementales, à une approche centrée sur les interactions précoces et la sensibilité parentale
Ouss, L., Beauquier‐Maccotta, B., Hervé, M.-J., Bompard, C., Desvignes, C., Velásquez, P., Serpa, S. R., & Quirot, B. (2023) · Annales Médico-psychologiques revue psychiatrique · doi:10.1016/j.amp.2022.11.017 · Cited by 3
Bayes factor for single-case ABAB design data
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“The ABAB design is the second most frequently used design of SCEDs after multiple baseline designs (Shadish & Sullivan 2011; Smith 2012; Tanious & Onghena 2021).”
ABkPowerCalculator: An App to Compute Power for Balanced (AB) k Single Case Experimental Designs
Batley, P. N., Thamaran, M., & Hedges, L. V. (2023) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1080/00273171.2023.2261229 · Cited by 3
“As discussed above, the app only computes power for (AB) k designs which are one type of SCEDs and multiple baseline designs that are widely used in SCEDs (Pustejovsky et al., 2019; Shadish & Sullivan, 2011; Smith, 2012) are not addressed here.”
Method
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“Penelitian ini melibatkan perbandingan antara dua periode waktu eksperimental (Smith, 2012).”
Background
Brief individual experiential schema therapy in adult outpatients with cluster C personality disorders: Does it work?
Wan‐Vermeer, R., Bouwmeester, S., & Starrenburg, A. (2024) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2948 · Cited by 3
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“SCED is specifically suitable for innovative interventions for relatively small populations (such as youth with complex OCD) [22 – 24].”
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“In contrast to traditional control-group designs, an individual serves as his or her own control in SCD (Smith, 2012).”
MethodResult
De l’efficacité d’un « exergame » sur le stress perçu et le sentiment d’auto-efficacité chez un patient atteint de la maladie de Parkinson : résultats d’un protocole à cas unique de type ABAB
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Facing the challenges of single-case experimental methodology
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“Despite these problems with Approach A, the status of Approach B designs in singlecase research is controversial due to the abandonment of the basic criteria of repetition (Smith, 2012).”
BackgroundMethod
Associations Among Professional Development, Teachers’ Use of Naturalistic Language Strategies, and Preschoolers’ Functional Communication
Ottley, J. R., Rahn, N. L., Coogle, C. G., Ferron, J. M., & Storie, S. (2018) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2018.1492296 · Cited by 5
“Scholars have used multilevel modeling to effectively evaluate changes in outcome trajectories and determine whether outcomes were related to other covariates (i.e., the additional independent variables described in “Measures”; see Smith, 2012).”
MethodInfluential
Learning to Personalize from Practice: A Real World Evidence Approach of Care Plan Personalization based on Differential Patient Behavioral Responses in Care Management Records.
Hsueh, P.-Y. S., Das, S., Maduri, C., & Kelly, K. (2018) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 3
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“Visual analysis is the primary method that clinicians and researchers use for evaluating behavioral data within SCEDs (e.g., Baer, 1977; Fisher & Lerman, 2014; Smith, 2012).”
Method
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Dekkers, T., Heirbaut, T., Schouten, S. E., Kelders, S. M., Jong, N. B.-D., Ludden, G., Deenik, J., Bouman, Y. H. A., & Kip, H. (2023) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/37727 · Cited by 3
“In an SCED, the intervention is systematically manipulated across multiple phases of introduction and withdrawal while the outcome variable is measured repeatedly and frequently [36-38].”
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Berardi, V., Carretero-González, R., Bellettiere, J., Adams, M. A., Hughes, S. C., & Hovell, M. F. (2018) · Journal of Biomedical Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.jbi.2018.07.023 · Cited by 3
“The data sets used within these texts are representative of the current status quo, as demonstrated by a meta-analysis of 409 SCDs, which reported that the average number of observations in the baseline phase was 10.22 [6].”
Influential
Comparing Visual and Statistical Analysis in Single-Subject Studies
Harrington, M. A. (2013) · doi:10.23860/diss-harrington-magdalena-2013 · Cited by 3
Implementation of International Financial Reporting Standards by listed companies in Nigeria
Ogbenjuwa, E. I. (2016) · ScholarWorks (Walden University) · Cited by 3
Number of participants required for common designs in psychology: A power analysisPreprint
Brysbaert, M. (2018) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/2v4yx · Cited by 3
From the individual to the group: Using idiographic analyses and two-stage random effects meta-analysis to obtain population level inferences for within-person processesPreprint
Lee, S. A. W., & Gates, K. M. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/u8mcp · Cited by 3
Type I error rates and power of two randomization test procedures for the changing criterion design
Manolov, R., & Tanious, R. (2023) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-023-02303-1 · Cited by 2
“…data analytical procedures (e.g., Baek & Ferron, 2013; Bishara et al., 2021; De & Onghena, 2022; Hedges et al., 2023; Petit-Bois et al., 2016; Smith et al., 2012), including randomization tests (Bouwmeester & Jongerling, 2020; Fer-ron & Onghena, 1996; Ferron & Sentovich, 2002; Levin et al.,…”
Method
Delineamento de caso único na pesquisa em psicologia clínica
de Paulo, L. C. S., & Pilatti, P. (2024) · Revista Brasileira de Terapia Comportamental e Cognitiva · doi:10.31505/rbtcc.v26i1.1786 · Cited by 2
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Reporting guidelines for single-case experimental design research: Recommendations for data analysis
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A Clinical Case Series of Integrated Psychotherapy in Major Depressive Disorder
Duarte, L. G., Teixeira, A. G., de Oliveira, A. C. R., de Castro, D. A., da Silva, J. M., & Carvalho, R. V. (2026) · Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy · doi:10.1007/s10879-026-09732-x · Cited by 2
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“22,26,27 If a treatment is hypothesized as only ef ﬁ cacious when used (e.g., a mindfulness-based treatment), an A-B-A model could be of interest (see Figure 1).”
The curse of serial dependency in single-case data—commentary on Howard, Best, and Nickels’ “Optimising the design of intervention studies: critiques and ways forward”
Willmes, K. (2014) · Aphasiology · doi:10.1080/02687038.2014.987048 · Cited by 2
“HBN take on the view of Smith (2012) that there “remains a need for sound analytic methods” (Howard et al., 2014, p. 527) and provide, both, a sound critique of the limitations of various designs and statistical procedures often employed in single-case intervention studies as well as a coherent…”
Method
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“Smith (2012) states that a single case study approach refers “to the participant or cluster of participants (e.”
BackgroundInfluential
Multiple baseline and multiple probe design studies targeting academic skills: Trends over time in effect sizes
Zink, H. H., Norman, E. R. V., & Klingbeil, D. A. (2023) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.23120 · Cited by 2
Augmented Depression Therapy for young adults: A mixed methods randomised multiple baseline case series evaluation
Carson, J., Demetriou, K., Barlow, G., Wright, K. A., Loades, M. E., & Dunn, B. D. (2024) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2024.104646 · Cited by 2
A Problem‐Solving Tool for Single‐Case Design Selection in Practice
Colombo, R. A., & Wallace, M. D. (2024) · Behavioral Interventions · doi:10.1002/bin.2065 · Cited by 2
Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for posttraumatic stress disorder following acquired brain injury: A multiple baseline single case experimental design study across four cases
Janssen, E. P. J., Spauwen, P. J. J., Rijnen, S. J. M., & Ponds, R. (2025) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2024.2444999 · Cited by 2
“For each participant, a SCED was used in which baseline phase (A) length of either 2, 3 or 4 weeks was randomized across participants (Onghena & Edgington, 2005; Smith, 2012) using start-point randomization (Michiels & Onghena, 2019).”
The Effects of a Smartphone App (Feelee) to Enhance Adolescents’ Emotion Regulation Skills in a Forensic Outpatient Setting: Protocol for a Multiple Single-Case Experimental Design
Leijse, M. M. L., van Dam, L., van der Pol, T. M., Breuk, R., & Popma, A. (2025) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/64756 · Cited by 2
“Therefore, to gain a better understanding of individual differences and enable within-and between-participants comparisons, at least 9 to 10 participants will be included in the data analyses [67].”
Influential
Bayes factor for major single-case experimental designs: case for alternating treatment design and changing criterion design
Yamada, T., & Okada, K. (2025) · Behaviormetrika · doi:10.1007/s41237-025-00259-4 · Cited by 2
“Several reviews have highlighted relatively low usage rates: Shadish and Sullivan (2011) reported 8.0% usage for ATD and 2.6% for CCD; Smith (2012) reported 6% for ATD and 4% for CCD; and Tanious and Onghena (2021) reported 14.42% for ATD, and 1.42% for CCD.”
Influential
Exploring sustainable servicescape and geo-arbitrage to foster revisit intentions in rural homestays
Tiwana, R. K., Tandon, U., & Mittal, A. (2025) · Tourism Recreation Research · doi:10.1080/02508281.2025.2521291 · Cited by 2
“In this study, since the sampling frame was not available, we preferred non-probability sampling methods (Smith, 2012).”
O ensino de habilidades terapêuticas em FAP: uma revisão de literatura
Ferreira, V. S. (2020) · Perspectivas em Análise do Comportamento · doi:10.18761/pac.2020.v11.n2.08 · Cited by 2
Ambulatory Assessment in Neuropsychology
Schlotz, W., & Powell, D. (2014) · Zeitschrift für Neuropsychologie · doi:10.1024/1016-264x/a000140 · Cited by 2
“Similarly, ambulatory assessment methods provide data suitable for single case experimental designs that can reveal useful information for clinical practice (Smith, 2012).”
Background
Desenhos de investigação A-B-A-B: Uma abordagem experimental para a avaliação de intervenções em contextos naturais
Correia, N. E. F. G., Daniel, J. R., & Aguiar, C. (2014) · Laboratório de Psicologia · doi:10.14417/lp.619 · Cited by 2
Assigning and combining probabilities in single-case studies: A second study
Manolov, R., & Solanas, A. (2013) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-013-0332-3
“In that sense, and in relation to external validity, the importance of the synthesis and comparison of effect size measures (Smith, 2012) and meta-analysis (Burns, 2012) has been highlighted.”
Background
Les effets de l’approche multisensorielle en ambulatoire dans la prise en soin d’une résidente institutionnalisée en EHPAD
Ansaldo, J., Palazzolo, J., & Corveleyn, X. (2018) · NPG Neurologie - Psychiatrie - Gériatrie · doi:10.1016/j.npg.2018.04.002 · Cited by 2
Functional electrical stimulation to improve upper limb function in a child with an acquired brain injury
Kelly, G., & Shanley, J. (2018) · International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation · doi:10.12968/ijtr.2018.25.8.437 · Cited by 2
Improving the Methodological Quality of Single-Case Experimental Design Meta-Analysis
Jamshidi, L. (2018) · JOURNAL OF MENTAL HEALTH AND CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY · doi:10.29245/2578-2959/2018/4.1140 · Cited by 2
Effects of the STOP and LIST Strategy on the Writing Performance of Struggling Fourth Graders
Grünke, M., Nobel, K., & Bracht, J. (2019) · Journal of Education and Learning · doi:10.5539/jel.v8n2p1 · Cited by 2
“To detect autocorrelation in the data, it is often suggested to set the minimum number of baseline probes at five (e.g., Smith, 2012).”
Background
How Can We Implement Single-Case Experimental Designs in Group Therapy and Using Digital Technologies: A Study with Fibromyalgia Patients
Suso‐Ribera, C., Molinari, G., & García‐Palacios, A. (2019) · Lecture notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-25872-6_12 · Cited by 2
“…the latter, while SCDs are usually seen as having limited external validity because they can be applied to a single individual, replications of the single effect in an increased number of subjects is perfectly possible (and recommended), thus increasing the generalizability of ﬁ ndings [3, 4].”
Background
Do recovery outcome measures improve clinical practice? A linguistic analysis of the impact of the Hope, Agency and Opportunity measure in community mental health teams
Bowen, A., Maguire, T. O., & Newman‐Taylor, K. (2019) · Perspectives in Public Health · doi:10.1177/1757913919852121 · Cited by 2
Subjectivité de la personne adulte autiste avec retard mental profond, prise en charge dans un établissement d’accueil médico-social
Desnos, Y., Gepner, B., Bellusso, P., & Segond, H. (2019) · Bulletin de psychologie · doi:10.3917/bupsy.562.0259 · Cited by 2
Digital equipment – a game changer for police training?! Experiences of the Bavarian Police training
Fuchs, M. (2022) · Police Practice and Research · doi:10.1080/15614263.2022.2067157 · Cited by 3
“…measurement at the beginning of the police training, which will serve as comparison with the subsequent phases but also as comparison to the control group (Smith, 2012) to gain more validity about the influence of digital devices on learning interest and academic performance in police training.”
Background
Testing Concerns about Technology's Behavioral Impacts with N-of-one Trials
Matias, J. N., Pennington, E., & Chan, Z. T. (2022) · ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (FAccT) · doi:10.1145/3531146.3533227 · Cited by 2
“Scientists also benefit from these studies by meta-analyzing the results together in a search for ways to explain differences in treatment effects [35, 59].”
Background
Rhythmic auditory stimulation to improve gait rehabilitation outcomes for children with acquired brain injury: a pilot study
Kelly, G., Pool, J., Hamilton, C., & Rodda, J. (2023) · International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation · doi:10.12968/ijtr.2022.0121 · Cited by 2
A Single Case Evaluation of an Emotion Regulation Training in Adolescents
Boelens, E., Wante, L., Vervoort, L., Verbeken, S., Goossens, L., & Braet, C. (2025) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb.1337 · Cited by 2
Protocol: New approaches to managing the social deficits of Turner Syndrome using the PEERS program
Wolstencroft, J., Mandy, W., & Skuse, D. (2018) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.15489.2 · Cited by 2
Single-Case Designs
Byiers, B. J. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-10-2779-6_92-1 · Cited by 2
Evaluation emotionaler und kommunikativer Verhaltensweisen in Mensch-Roboter Interaktionen in therapierelevanten Szenarien zur Entwicklung eines Modells für die roboterunterstützte Therapie bei Sprach- und Kommunikationsstörungen
Malchus, K. (2015) · PUB – Publications at Bielefeld University (Bielefeld University) · Cited by 2
Single-System Research Designs
Wong, S. E. (2014) · doi:10.1093/obo/9780195389678-0191 · Cited by 2
Comparing Single-Case Design Non-Overlap Metrics and Visual Analysis Examining School-Based Interventions for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Alresheed, F. (2018) · Scholars' Bank (University of Oregon) · Cited by 2
Editorial: Creating Evidence From Real World Patient Digital Data
Nikles, J., Daza, E. J., McDonald, S., Hekler, E. B., & Schork, N. J. (2021) · Frontiers in Computer Science · doi:10.3389/fcomp.2020.636996 · Cited by 2
“SCDs can complement RCTs in a wide range of clinical research and practice contexts (Gabler et al., 2011; Smith, 2012; Punja et al., 2016; McDonald et al., 2017; Shaffer et al., 2018; Hekler et al., 2019).”
Background
Attachment and mentalization as predictors of outcome in family therapy for adolescent anorexia nervosa (Thesis)Preprint
Jewell, T. (2021) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/ru8sd · Cited by 2
Study Protocol for a Research and Development Project: Optimizing a Unified Parent Training Intervention to Prevent Child Mental Health Problems and NeglectPreprint
Tømmerås, T., Backer‐Grøndahl, A., Arnesen, A., Apeland, A., Laland, H., Askeland, E., Kjøbli, J., Idsøe, T., Grønlie, A. A., Gomez, M. B., et al. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.08.16.22278822 · Cited by 3
“17 individual, both when introducing the intervention and throughout the B phase (Smith, 2012).”
Background
Psychiatric Neuroimaging Designs for Individualised, Cohort, and Population StudiesPreprint
Gell, M., Noble, S., Laumann, T. O., Nelson, S. M., & Tervo‐Clemmens, B. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/278ef · Cited by 2
The effects of a self-regulated writing Intervention on English learners' academic writing skills
Akhmedjanova, D. R. (2020) · doi:10.54014/ctf1-vh9s · Cited by 2
The Application of CBT for Adults with Learning Disabilities
Serfaty, M., Broadway-Horner, M., & Hassiotis, A. (2021) · Evidence-Based Treatment for Anxiety Disorders and Depression · doi:10.1017/9781108355605.030 · Cited by 1
The impact of online social games on E-learning usage among female students
Mahmood, A. I., Yusof, S. A. M., & Jambak, M. I. (2016) · doi:10.1109/icggag.2016.8052647 · Cited by 1
“Meanwhile, on a general perspective to experimental research design, it has been discovered to be a typical methodological design in the realm of examining causal relationships between variables [21].”
Background
Case Reports in the Integration of Technology with Cognitive Rehabilitation for Individuals with Memory Concerns and Their Care Partners
Grewal, K. S., Grewal, E. S., Cammer, A. L., McWilliams, L. A., Spiteri, R. J., & O’Connell, M. E. (2024) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acae115 · Cited by 1
“Importantly, we selected minimum three-week intervals based on single-case experimental design guidelines (Smith, 2012).”
Bridging screens and classrooms: a scoping review of the pedagogical use of audiovisual translation in language education
Liu, Y. (2025) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-025-05913-6 · Cited by 1
“It is worth noting that single-authored systematic or scoping review studies are not uncommon (Dobson, 2023; Fennell, 2021; Smith, 2012).”
Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of an online transdiagnostic positive psychology intervention for patients awaiting mental health treatment and their loved ones: study protocol
Zinzen, J., van Hooren, S., Drost, R. M. W. A., Kavelaars, X., Rohrbach, P. J., Thewissen, V., Evers, S., & Boselie, J. J. L. M. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03860-0 · Cited by 1
Evaluating the feasibility of a co-designed psychosocial recovery intervention for cyberscam survivors with acquired brain injury (ABI): a single-case experimental design
Chew, K. A., Cazanis, A., Hymus, S., Grant, S., Ponsford, J. L., & Gould, K. R. (2026) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09638288.2025.2605172 · Cited by 1
From suicide to resilience: the role of adaptive sports in mental rehabilitation after spinal injury: a case report of an Indian Paralympian
Kumar, R., Vedwan, K. K., & Singh, V. (2026) · Sport Sciences for Health · doi:10.1007/s11332-026-01688-8 · Cited by 2
“During this period, the participant advanced in adaptive sports and secured a bronze medal at the 2024 Paralympic Games [27–29].”
Eight-Session Cognitive Analytic Therapy (CAT) for Self-Harm: A Co-Produced Demonstration of the Delivery and Effectiveness of Brief and Focal CAT
Kershaw, J., Kellett, S., Taylor, P. J., Gaskell, C., & Airnes, Z. (2026) · Clinical Case Studies · doi:10.1177/15346501261436753 · Cited by 1
“As reformulation/recognition phases for all TPs/TPPs demonstrated stability, it was not necessary to make any statistical adjustments.”
Influential
Virtual rescripting after loss using deepfake technology in prolonged grief treatment: a study protocol for a multiple baseline design
Petkovski, M., Knipschild, R., Gevers, T., & Lenferink, L. I. M. (2026) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008066.2026.2643984 · Cited by 1
“The psychometric properties of the MHC-SF are good (Franken et al., 2018; Keyes et al., 2008; Lamers et al., 2011, 2012).”
Investigating the Effects of Buprenorphine Treatment on Depression Symptoms Among Adults with Opioid Use Disorder: A Scoping Review
Votaw, V. R., Rosen, R. S., Peckham, A., London, Z., Philpotts, L. L., Weiss, R. D., McHugh, R. K., & Streck, J. M. (2026) · Journal of Dual Diagnosis · doi:10.1080/15504263.2026.2638194 · Cited by 1
“…on depression symptoms by staggering or varying the administration of psychosocial treatment among participants receiving buprenorphine (i.e., multiple base-line/combined series design) and observing whether depression symptoms vary significantly with psycho-social treatment (Smith, 2012).”
Telehealth Delivered Social Communication Skills Interventions Among Individuals with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: A Systematic Review
Sparks, K., Akers, J. S., & Liu, R. (2026) · Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40489-026-00553-1 · Cited by 1
Matching Analyses as an Evaluative Tool: Characterizing Behavior in Juvenile Residential Settings
Luna, O. (2019) · Cited by 1
Influence of Socio-Economic Factors on K.C.S.E Performance of Boy -Child in Kakamega North Sub County, Kenya
Loice, W., Kiprop, D., Ndaita, J., & Ndaita, J. (2020) · International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences · doi:10.6007/ijarbss/v10-i4/7218 · Cited by 3
“Smith, J. D. (2012). Single-case experimental designs: a systematic review of published research and current standards.”
BackgroundInfluential
Nitel ve Nicel Araştırma Tasarımı Uygulamasıyla Etanol Kullanımını ve Etkilerinin Anlaşılması
Yavuz, Ö. (2022) · European Journal of Science and Technology · doi:10.31590/ejosat.1039621 · Cited by 1
A brief course of digitally delivered cognitive behavioural therapy for the treatment of blood contamination-based obsessive-compulsive disorder: a structured case report
Purrington, J. (2022) · The Cognitive Behaviour Therapist · doi:10.1017/s1754470x22000332 · Cited by 1
“Analytic principles from single case experimental design research were utilised as the intervention can be evaluated for its efficacy due to the ‘AB’ design (McMillan and Morley, 2010; Smith, 2012).”
BackgroundMethod
Response inhibition training for compulsive acquisition in hoarding: A multiple baseline single case design
Gledhill, L. J., Veale, D. M., Drury, H., Bream, V., & Onwumere, J. (2022) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2022.100745 · Cited by 1
Comparing Presence and Absence of Initial In-Person Contact and Written Feedback in RE&CBT E-Supervision
Miljković, E. (2023) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-023-00505-2 · Cited by 1
“When it comes to analyzing the individual case studies, there is no consensus on the best method (Brossart et al., 2018 ; Campbell, 2004 ; Parker et al., 2011a , b; Smith, 2012 ; Tarlow, 2016 ).”
Method
The effect of novel Head and Trunk Control Rehabilitation (HATCoRe) device in children with cerebral palsy: Single-Subject multiple baseline protocol
Shakya, S., Gopalakrishnan, S., Anaby, D., Shamantha Madapura, S., Shetty, H. B., Shah, H. H., Venkatesan, V. S., & Rao, B. K. (2024) · MethodsX · doi:10.1016/j.mex.2024.102649 · Cited by 1
Intervention Development for Self-Regulated Writing among English Learners: A Single-Case Design Study
Hanh, N. T. T. (2024) · International Journal of Advanced Multidisciplinary Research and Studies · doi:10.62225/2583049x.2024.4.3.2953 · Cited by 1
Single case experiment evaluating the effectiveness of an adapted cognitive behavioural therapy intervention for an older adult with a fear of falling
Sibley, R. (2024) · FPOP Bulletin: Psychology of Older People · doi:10.53841/bpsfpop.2024.1.167.29 · Cited by 1
The effects of the Daily Behavior Report Cards (DBRC) on the disruptive behavior and specific goal behavior of elementary school children: a multiple baseline design study
Nitz, J., Volpe, R. J., Hagen, T., Krull, J., Hennemann, T., & Hanisch, C. (2024) · Discover Education · doi:10.1007/s44217-024-00231-6 · Cited by 1
“This methodology facilitates accurate statements about student development using regression models [34–36].”
Employing Acceptance and Commitment Therapy as Individual Therapy for Couple Problems: A Case Study for Women with Marital Strife
Hekmati, I., Ranjbar, H. A., Sadigh, L. M., & Eskin, M. (2024) · International Journal of Systemic Therapy · doi:10.1080/2692398x.2024.2400378 · Cited by 2
“According to Smith (2012), a lack of a straightforward, comprehensive approach across datasets is an essential issue in single-subject designs, and there is no agreed-upon statistical method.”
Mindful With Your Baby/Toddler: A Single Case Design (SCD) Study
Schaeffer, M. A., & Potharst, E. S. (2024) · Evaluation & the Health Professions · doi:10.1177/01632787241297966 · Cited by 2
“SCDs can be a viable, scienti ﬁ cally rigorous alternative to RCTs, not only to assess whether, but also for whom psychological and behavioral interventions work (Borkardt et al., 2008; Borkardt & Nash, 2014; Lobo et al., 2017; Smith, 2012).”
At-Home Virtual Reality Intervention for Patients With Chronic Musculoskeletal Pain: Single-Case Experimental Design Study
Slatman, S., Heesink, L., Achterkamp, R., Broeks, J., de Oliveira, N. P. M., ter Riet, R., Stegeman, M., & Tabak, M. (2025) · JMIR XR and spatial computing. · doi:10.2196/58784 · Cited by 1
“SCED studies apply detailed assessment at numerous timepoints [15] and have benefits over other designs, including patients serving as their own control and being especially suitable for heterogeneous samples, like CMP patients with a variety of conditions [16].”
Flexible distributional models for meta-analysis of reading fluency outcomes from single-case designs: An examination using Bayesian methods.
Grekov, P., Pustejovsky, J. E., & Klingbeil, D. A. (2025) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2025.101429 · Cited by 3
An Application of Time Series Analysis to Single-Case Designs in an Intensive Behavioral Intervention for ADHD
Jusko, M. L., Smith, J. N., Hayes, T., Campez, M., Timmons, A. C., Morrow, A. S., Lozano, C., Fosco, W. D., Little, K., Villodas, M. T., et al. (2025) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547251339546 · Cited by 1
“Treatment research in clinical psychology has primarily focused on group-based designs to understand the effectiveness of an intervention and change over time (Morgan & Morgan, 2001; Shadish et al., 2001; Smith, 2012).”
InfluentialSelf-citation

Authors: Smith, J. D.
Affiliations: University of Oregon (US)
Corresponding author: Smith, Justin D.
ORCID: Smith, Justin D.
Venue: Psychological Methods
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2012
Volume: 17
Issue: 4
Pages: 510-550
ISSN: 1082-989X (ISSN-L)
1939-1463
DOI: 10.1037/a0029312
PMC: PMC3652808
OpenAlex: W1978096047
Cited by: 630
References: 648
Citations by year: 2026: 37 · 2025: 40 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 52 · 2021: 57 · 2020: 48 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 58 · 2017: 47 · 2016: 45 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 31 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 1
FWCI: 3.60
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
europepmc.org
Locations: Psychological Methods (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (MH20012)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychology Research and Bibliometrics
Social Sciences › Education › Educational Research and Methods
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Behavioral and Psychological Studies
Keywords: single-case experimental design, study design quality, methodological standards, visual analysis, statistical analysis methods, methodological quality
MeSH terms: Humans, Research Design, Benchmarking

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Single-case experimental designs: a systematic review of published research and current standards

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