Developmental changes in parent–child communication throughout adolescence

“Adolescents spend more time with friends thanwith parents, and the parent-child relationship experiences tension around adolescents’ emerging independence [6,7].”

“The mean structure of the observed variables was unconstrained in this model because of known developmental changes in these constructs (e.g., Keijsers et al., 2009; Keijsers & Poulin, 2013).”

“Mindful parenting may be particularly important for parent– adolescent communication during the adolescent transition, when levels of solicitation and disclosure typically decline (Keijsers and Poulin 2013).”

“Although some longitudinal studies have tested these changes (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013; Masche, 2010), a meta-analysis of the empirical findings from longitudinal studies regarding these changes is currently lacking.”

“Using a piecewise model with two linear slopes allowed us to investigate potential differences in the development between early to middle and middle to late adolescence (e.g., Keijsers & Poulin, 2013; Shanahan et al., 2007).”

“, 2017) and in adolescence depression and anxiety starts to be expressed in the same way as in adults (Keijsers and Poulin, 2013).”

“…of the child toward peers and the often observed (temporary) distance between parents and children during this life-stage (see for instance Keijsers & Poulin, 2013), and second, this period is marked by an increased (mostly temporary) emotionality and behavioral turmoil of the child as…”

“Over the course of adolescence, the monitoring process between parents and their children needs to be realigned, to meet the child’s increasing autonomy and privacy needs (Finkenauer, Engels, & Meeus, 2002; Keijsers & Poulin, 2013; Petronio, 2012).”

“Because adolescents may not fully disclose personal information to their parents even though they are spending more time at home, the lack of parental knowledge about their adolescents’ well-being may influence the accuracy of their responses (Barry et al., 2008; Keijsers & Poulin, 2013).”

“, decreasing secrecy by adolescents or increasing solicitation by parents) to attain a satisfying and mature relationship[36].”

“remained stable for Start Strong, yet decreased for comparisons, suggests the initiative may have disrupted the developmentally normative decrease that occurs in early adolescence [24].”

“and talking about sex, consistent with the greater likelihood of older adolescents’ interest in and opportunity to date—is more acceptable to both parents and youth with the passage of adolescence (Keijsers and Poulin 2013).”

“During adolescence, the parent–child relationship often undergoes a transitional period characterized by heightened conflicts, decreased communication time, and diminished intimacy [30,63,64].”

“Most parents gradually relinquish control and allow an increasing amount of autonomy during such transitions (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013; Soenens et al., 2019).”

“As these findings suggest and previous research has proposed, parentchild communication patterns, including disclosure of information, appear to be more influential on female development (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013).”

“For example, work shows that parental attempts to limit their children’s behavioral autonomy tend to decrease across development (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013), while parental granting of autonomy tends to increase (Keijsers et al., 2016; see Soenens et al., 2019, for a review).”

“With the greater salience of an identity and sense of self, youths may become more sensitive to parents ’ infringements upon their independence as they enter adolescence (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013).”

“Researchers have previously shown that in general, adolescent boys keep more secrets from parents than adolescent girls (Keijsers et al., 2010; Keijsers & Poulin, 2013), but the current study suggests these patterns may differ when it comes to media secrets.”

“Specifically, high levels of family conflict, as well as youth secrecy and non-disclosure, are hypothesized to interfere with parent‒youth communication (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013; Montemayor, 1983).”

“Such a peak may reflect the “storm and stress” in puberty, during which young adolescents may strive for more independence from adults (i.e., parents and teachers) (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013).”

“Parent–child communication is essential but difficult in the developmental stage of adolescence [4, 32].”

“A longitudinal study following adolescents from age 12 to 19 found a decline in communication in early adolescence which, remained at a low, stable level for boys while intensifying again for girls later in adolescence (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013).”

“Research has shown that girls’ communication with parents generally intensifies in middle adolescence, as indicated by increasing parental solicitation, increasing adolescent disclosure, and decreasing adolescent secrecy [26].”

“One reason for the significant difference may be that females may be more interdependent, with family emotional support and connectedness affecting females more than males (e.g., Darling, McWey, Howard, & Olmstead, 2007; De Goede, Branje, & Meeus, 2009; Keijsers & Poulin, 2013).”

“Our study included older adolescents; however, early adolescents (ages 13-15 years), developmentally, tend to experience the most conflict with their parents, so their perspectives may be valuable to ascertain in the future (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013).”

“Although mothers gradually release their control over the course of adolescence, they continue to experience that some of these issues still fall under their jurisdiction (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013; Petronio, 2002).”

“…and middle adolescence (Barnes et al., 2006) and that parental knowledge and influence on their children declines over the course of adolescence (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013), early adolescence may be a critical period for parents to prevent or reduce later delinquency in their children…”

“Teens and parents typically renegotiate the ‘rules’ of communication [92]: a key part of adolescents’ individuation from parents [26].”

“Indeed, adolescence is a period characterized by decreased disclosure of unsupervised activities and behavior to parents (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013), making changes in disclosure a hallmark of communication and development in adolescence.”

“Children and adolescents require different needs in their parent–child relationship and developmental tasks according to developmental stage [49,50].”

“…behavioral control strategies, such as monitoring and disciplinary means, become less feasible and effective in regulating adolescent behavior (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013), parents may begin to prefer the more covert strategies of psychological control as a more feasible way of exerting in fl…”

“Keijsers and Poulin (2013) found females report achieving independence and connectedness with parents while males strive for independence through psychological separation from parents.”

“Research has shown that changes regarding parent–child communication occur during the adolescent period, characterized by declines in early adolescence and improvement in middle adolescence (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013).”

“Similar results were found in Keijsers and Poulin’s study [14], which revealed a decrease in perceived parental control in adolescents aged 14 to 19.”

“Current research considers the parents–boys relationship to be more centred on independence and a higher need of psychological separation, while the parents–girls relationship is simultaneously based on independence but also connectedness, intimacy and reciprocity at the same time [43].”

“In general, boys show slightly higher levels than girls in open communication with their fathers (OCF) and girls slightly higher levels in open communication with their mothers (OCM) and problematic communication with the father (PCF) and mother (PCM; Parra and Oliva, 2002; Cava, 2003; Keijsers and Poulin, 2013).”

“Research has found that the trajectory of routine disclosure increases into late adolescence after a decline through early to middle adolescence (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013).”

“Parental monitoring becomes progressively harder when children enter adolescence (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013).”

“There is a vast literature on healthy adolescents as well as those with diabetes showing high quality parent–child relationships are linked to better psychological well-being (see Helgeson & Palladino, 2012, for a review; Keijsers & Poulin, 2013).”

“However, as with social norms, entrance into adolescence brings significant transformations for parent-child interactions and children’s attempt to assert their growing autonomy represents a considerable challenge to the maintenance of good parent- child communication (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013).”

“As previous research has shown (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013), this scale also demonstrated an acceptable consistency (α= 0.66/0.65).”

“lessening parental control, and reduced parental knowledge and adolescent willingness to disclose (Keijsers and Poulin 2013).”

“During early adolescence, school (e.g., increased focus on vocational orientation) and peer group environments (Larson & Richards, 1991) as well as relationships with parents (Collins & Russell, 1991; Keijsers & Poulin, 2013; Larson & Richards, 1991) undergo noticeable changes.”

“Keijsers & Poulin, 2013, p. 3).”

“When these youths transitioned into adulthood, the normative decrease in parental control and monitoring (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013; Masche, 2010) following emerging adulthood’s individuation and autonomization processes (Cooper, Grotevant, & Condon, 1983; Erikson, 1950; Koepke & Denissen, 2012) may…”

“…communication – were assessed by teacher report scales, a possible explanation could be that the teacher–child communication decreases in early and later adolescence as children move towards independence due to decreasing adolescent disclosure, and increasing secrecy (e.g. Keijsers & Poulin, 2013).”

“For instance, how often parents and adolescents communicate decreases throughout adolescence (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013).”

“Importantly, during adolescence, individuals become autonomous and begin to individuate (67, 68), so they decrease communication with parents (69).”

“Studies have found that parental influences are strongest during childhood (Patterson, DeBaryshe, & Ramsey, 1989; Sampson & Laub, 1994) and wane over time as the child grows older (Geode, Branje, Delsing, & Meeus, 2009; Keijsers & Poulin, 2013; Scalici & Schulz, 2014).”

“Previous research suggests an increasing tendency of parentadolescent conflict around issues that reflect children’s growing assertion of their autonomy during adolescence (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013).”

“…supportive parenting often shows a normative decline over time (Lansford et al., 2021), which may be partially explained by diminishing parental knowledge of adolescents ’ daily experiences and the reduced effectiveness of previously used behavior-regulation strategies (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013).”

“As adolescents spend more time outside the home and form meaningful interactions with peers and teachers (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013), familial factors may not be the only determinant of adolescent life satisfaction.”

“But equally important is for children to openly communicate with their parents, tell their problems and worries, in a spontaneous way, without fear that they will get angry with them or that their parents will reject them (Keijsers & Poulin, 2013; Kerr et al., 1999).”

“Previous research suggests that parental knowledge decreases during early adolescence for boys and girls (Keijsers and Poulin 2013), such that parents begin to know less about their adolescents’ activities and behaviors that occur outside of their supervision (Spaeth et al. 2017).”

“…experience increasing conflict intensity and decreasing closeness during early adolescence, it is important to examine how these relationships are impacted by adolescent internalizing symptoms during the unique period of early adolescence (De Goede et al., 2009; Keijsers & Poulin, 2013).”

“Keijsers and Poulin (2013) found that disclosure and parental solicitation increased for girls across adolescence, highlighting a more frequent pattern of communication with parents than boys.”