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Cited by 102Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentMaternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and PostpartumAttachment and Relationship Dynamics

A Systematic Review of “Helicopter Parenting” and Its Relationship With Anxiety and Depression

Open access
Vigdal, Julia Schønning, Brønnick, Kolbjørn Kallesten·2022·Frontiers in Psychology
DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.872981PMC PMC9176408
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Abstract

Background: Emerging evidence suggests that overprotective and controlling parenting, often referred to as “helicopter parenting” may have negative implications on the child's mental health such as anxiety and depression. However, no systematic review on the topic exists. Objective: Conducting a systematic review to identify all studies where the relationship between helicopter parenting and symptoms of anxiety and/or depression have been investigated. Method: A systematic literature search conducted the 3rd of November 2021 yielded 38 eligible studies. Since helicopter parenting is a fairly new construct, this review considered parental control and overprotective parenting to be dimensions of helicopter parenting and thus, eligible for the study. Study quality was assessed in accordance with Campbells Validity Typology. Results: The majority of the studies included in this review found a direct relationship between helicopter parenting and symptoms of anxiety and depression. However, validity problems undermine these findings with regarding to assessing the causal relationship between helicopter parenting and these symptoms. There were no longitudinal studies of sufficient quality to determine if helicopter parenting precedes the outcome of anxiety and depression. Conclusion: Even though the majority of the studies included in this systematic review found a relationship between helicopter parenting and anxiety and depression, the evidence for this relationship is insufficient and must be investigated further. Findings suggest that it is important to include both maternal and paternal parenting style in future studies as they could affect the outcome of anxiety and depression differently. Systematic Review Registration: PROSPERO 2020 CRD42020167465, https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=167465 .

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This systematic review of 38 studies found that most included studies reported a direct relationship between helicopter parenting—including controlling and overprotective dimensions—and symptoms of anxiety and/or depression. However, validity problems and few longitudinal studies mean the evidence is insufficient to establish causality.

Key findings

  • Across 38 included studies (33 cross-sectional, 5 longitudinal), the majority found a direct relationship between helicopter parenting and anxiety and/or depression: helicopter parenting was directly related to anxiety in 5 of 10 studies and to depression in 9 of 11 studies; controlling parenting was related to anxiety in 11 of 12 studies and to depression in 13 of 15 studies.
  • Overprotective parenting was associated with anxiety in the included studies, with no studies finding reduced anxiety; Overbeek et al. (2007) found a relationship between overprotective parenting and depression.
  • Only 5 studies were longitudinal: 3 found a relationship with anxiety, 2 found a relationship with both anxiety and depression, and 2 found no relationship with anxiety but did detect a relationship with depression.
  • One study (Basili et al., 2021) found parental control predicted lower levels of depression, a finding the review notes as surprising and not supported by other studies.

Methods

  • PRISMA-guided systematic review with a PROSPERO-registered protocol; eligibility followed PICO(S), including quantitative non-experimental studies after 1985, participants aged 10 or older, and a valid separate measure of anxiety and/or depression; experimental studies and studies focused on parental psychopathology were excluded.
  • Searches were run in PsychINFO and PubMed using terms for overprotective, helicopter, and controlling parenting combined with parenting style and anxiety/depression; the initial search was 8 August 2019 and updated 3 November 2021, yielding 202 database records plus 34 hand-searched records, 196 after duplicate removal, 91 full-text retrievals, and 38 included studies.
  • Data were extracted into an Excel chart; study quality was assessed with Campbell’s Validity Typology, and findings were synthesized narratively.

Limitations

  • Stated by the authors: only one reviewer conducted the electronic literature search, only two databases were searched, one reviewer conducted initial screening and initial quality assessment, and the review did not investigate possible age differences in outcomes.
  • Stated by the authors and evident in the text: most included studies were cross-sectional (33 of 38), all used subjective self-report measures for helicopter parenting, and self-report is prone to bias, mono-method bias, and retrospective recall problems; therefore causal direction cannot be established.
  • Evident in the text: the review uses narrative synthesis without meta-analysis, and the included studies vary in whether they measure helicopter parenting, controlling parenting, or overprotective parenting, using many different instruments, which limits comparability.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.872981

Cites

137 of 138 references verified0 citation errors · 1 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

49 of 182 cited sources checked · 28 supported · 4 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Individuals who experienced a moderate amount of adversity had better mental health than those with no such experience or too much experience with hardship.

    “Seery et al. (2010) found that that individuals whom had experienced a moderate amount of adversity had better mental health as opposed to those whom had no such experience, or too much experience with hardship.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Seery et al., 2010 source
  • Premisecitation

    Restriction of exposure to challenges by intervening before a child has struggled or failed undermines the child's effort to establish healthy regulatory strategies.

    “The restriction of exposure to challenges by intervening before a child has struggled or failed undermines the child's effort to establish healthy regulatory strategies (Perry et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Perry et al., 2018 source
  • Premisecitation

    Individuals with a moderate experience of adversity were less likely to be affected by a recent adverse event.

    “Additionally, those with a moderate experience of adversity not only reported having better mental health, but they were also less likely to be affected by a recent adverse event (Seery et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Seery et al., 2010 source
  • Interpretationreasoning

    There are fewer regulatory strategies to be called upon when the child is without caregiver assistance.

    “Consequently, there are fewer regulatory strategies to be called upon when the child is without caregiver assistance (Perry et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Perry et al., 2018 source

      In “The Role of Parenting in the Development of Self-Regulatory Skills,” the paper says that overcontrolling parenting limits opportunities to practice regulation and that fewer strategies *may* be internalized or available without caregiver assistance. The citing sentence presents that qualified possibility as a certainty. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Both forms of parental psychological control (DPC and APC) were related to depressive symptoms.

    “Both forms of parental psychological control (DPC and APC) were related to depressive symptoms”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gargurevich and Soenens (2016) source
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 83
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 3
  • May combine two claims. 23

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    No direct relationship between control and depression.

    “No direct relationship between control and depression.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kullberg et al. (2020) source

      In “Lack of Care, Overprotection, and Autonomy: Differences Across Psychopathology Groups” (page unavailable), the paper reports that lack of autonomy—a restrictive aspect of parental control—was elevated in the lifetime-depression group relative to unaffected participants. It does report no elevated overprotection among participants with depression alone, but that narrower finding does not support a blanket claim of no relationship between control and depression. The cross-sectional study does not establish whether the association is causal. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    Rogers et al. (2020) found that the effect size of maternal control (1.05) and paternal control (0.8) were big in terms of reported adolescent anxiety.

    “However, the effect size of maternal control (1.05) and parental control (0.8) were big in terms of reported adolescent anxiety.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rogers et al. (2020) source

      In “Class differences in development of depressive and anxiety symptoms” (page unavailable), the paper reports maternal-control class differences in adolescent anxiety of d = 0.84 at age 14 and d = 0.43 at age 19—not 1.05. It reports paternal-control class differences of d = 0.23 and d = 0.09, respectively, describing them as small and negligible rather than large; neither cited figure matches the claim. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    Rogers et al. (2020) found that the effect size for maternal control (.34) and paternal control (.06) were small in relation to reported depression.

    “The effect size for both maternal control (.34) and parental control (.06) were found to be small in relation to reported depression.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rogers et al. (2020) source

      The section “Class differences in development of depressive and anxiety symptoms” (page unavailable) reports maternal-control class differences in depressive symptoms of d = 0.80 at age 14 (large) and d = 0.40 at age 19 (moderate). It reports paternal-control class differences of d = 0.40 (moderate) and d = 0.23 (relatively small), respectively—not .34 and .06, and not both small. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The effect size for both maternal and paternal control was quite small regarding its effect on depression, but it was much bigger in terms of adolescent anxiety.

    “Additionally, although the effect size for both maternal and parental control was found to be quite small regarding its effect on depression, it was much bigger in terms of adolescent anxiety.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rogers et al. (2020) source

      The Results section, “Class differences in development of depressive and anxiety symptoms” (page unavailable), reports large maternal-control group differences for both depression (d = 0.80) and anxiety (d = 0.84) at age 14, with both moderate by age 19. For paternal control, the depression difference was larger than the anxiety difference at both ages—the opposite of the claimed comparison. (LLM, conf=0.91)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Adolescence is a period characterized by an increased development of independence.

    “Adolescence on the other hand is a period characterized by an increased development of independence (Szwedo et al., 2017).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Szwedo et al., 2017 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Adolescence is a period characterized by development of independence.

    “Adolescence is a period characterized by development of independence (Szwedo et al., 2017)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Szwedo et al., 2017 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The eligibility criteria were developed in accordance with the PICO(S) framework.

    “The eligibility criteria was developed in accordance to the PICO(S) framework, see Table 1 (Santos et al., 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Santos et al., 2007 source

      The Construction of the Research Question section (p. 2) describes PICO as a framework for defining a research question and searching for evidence. Its example (p. 3) specifies population, intervention, comparison and outcome in ways relevant to selecting studies. The paper does not describe the added “S” in PICO(S) or explicitly present the framework as a method for developing eligibility criteria. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Three studies (Overbeek et al., 2007; Knappe et al., 2012; Rogers et al., 2020) only used child self-report, exposing them to risk of mono-method bias and response bias.

    “Three studies only used child self-report, thereby exposing their study to the risk of mono-method bias and response bias (Overbeek et al., 2007; Knappe et al., 2012; Rogers et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Overbeek et al., 2007 source
    • cites Knappe et al., 2012 source
    • cites Rogers et al., 2020 source

      Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Basili et al. (2021) found parental control to predict lower levels of depression.

    “Regarding the study by Basili et al. (2021) the findings must be interpreted with caution as they found parental control to predict lower levels of depression”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Basili et al., 2021 source

      The Discussion (page not supplied) reports that paternal psychological control predicted fewer adolescent anxious-depressed symptoms. The claim broadens this finding to parental control generally and to depression alone; maternal psychological control was not associated with internalizing symptoms. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A clear majority of the studies included in this review found a direct positive relationship between helicopter parenting and symptoms of anxiety and depression, with one exception (Basili et al., 2021) finding a negative association.

    “A clear majority of the studies included in this review found a direct positive relationship between helicopter parenting and symptoms of anxiety and depression, with one exception (Basili et al., 2021) finding a negative association.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Basili et al., 2021 source

      The Discussion (page not specified) reports a negative association between paternal psychological control and adolescents’ anxious-depressive symptoms. The cited study examines psychological control, not helicopter parenting, so it does not establish the claimed exception for helicopter parenting. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingcitation

    Maternal control was found to have a bigger effect size than paternal control on anxiety and depression.

    “However, there were differences in the effect sizes in terms on how each specific parent effected anxiety and depression with maternal control found to have a bigger effect size than parental control.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rogers et al. (2020) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Our memories are not accurate snapshots of the past; rather, they are constructions and must be understood as open to influence from attempts to provide meaning and from cognitive processes involving our selection and interpretation of elements making up memories.

    “However, our memories are not accurate snapshots of the past, rather, they are constructions and must be understood as open to influence from the attempts to provide meaning (Schacter et al., 2011) and from the cognitive processes involving our selection and interpretation of elements making up memories (Chess et al., 1966).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Schacter et al., 2011 source
    • cites Chess et al., 1966 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Genetic factors, the personality of the individual, and stressful life events could cause anxiety.

    “In terms of the causes of anxiety both genetic (Meier et al., 2019), the personality of the individual (Prince et al., 2021) as well as stressful life events could cause anxiety (Miloyan et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim3 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Meier et al., 2019 source
    • cites Prince et al., 2021 source

      The Prince et al. citation attaches to the personality portion of the sentence, not to genetic factors or stressful life events. The Discussion reports that higher neuroticism predicted first-onset anxiety disorders in young adults, but the Conclusions say it could be either a true risk factor or a marker of risk. The source therefore supports an association with specific personality traits, not an established causal role for personality generally. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Miloyan et al., 2018 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    PRISMA recommends that at least two separate screenings take place.

    “Even though a second reviewer was contacted when uncertainty arose and the two reviews met to collectively go through the potential studies, it is still a recommendation by PRISMA that at least two separate screenings take place (Liberati et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Liberati et al., 2009 source

      In the study-selection explanation (page unavailable), the paper says using at least two investigators may reduce the chance of rejecting relevant reports. It advises authors to report how screening was done, but says there is no standard selection process; it does not recommend that every review undergo at least two separate screenings. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There are several reasons why one could develop depression, such as faulty mood regulation by the brain, genetic vulnerability and stressful life events.

    “Research is clear that there are several reasons why one could develop depression, such as faulty mood regulation by the brain, genetic vulnerability and stressful life events (Burns et al., 2002; Bar, 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Burns et al., 2002 source
    • cites Bar, 2009 source

      The sections on associative processing and mood link depression to abnormal brain-network function and mood regulation. The concluding remarks also say that not all depression stems from the proposed hippocampal/prefrontal processes. Our copy does not identify genetic vulnerability or stressful life events as reasons someone develops depression; its mention of stress describes it as a concomitant of mood disorders. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The systematic literature search conducted on 3 November 2021 yielded 38 eligible studies.

    “A systematic literature search conducted the 3rd of November 2021 yielded 38 eligible studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Duplicates were removed before further screening, leaving 196 abstracts and titles to be screened according to the eligibility criteria.

    “Duplicates were removed before any further screening procedure, leaving 196 abstracts and titles to be screened according to the eligibility criteria.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Thirty-one studies used only child reports.

    “Thirty-one studies used only child reports and 5 studies used both parent report and child report.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    After applying eligibility criteria to full-text studies, 38 studies were selected to be part of the review.

    “After the application of the eligibility criteria to the full-text studies a total amount of 38 studies were selected to be part of the review.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Exclusions after full-text retrieval were due to participants being under age 10, parental psychopathology, helicopter parenting being a mediator, no valid measure of anxiety or depression, ineligible sample, or study not peer reviewed.

    “Exclusion after full-text retrieval were due to participants being under the age of 10, parental psychopathology, helicopter parenting being a mediator, no valid measure of anxiety or depression, the sample was ineligible or the study was not peer reviewed (see Figure 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    202 studies were identified through electronic searches in the databases PsychINFO and Pubmed.

    “As is illustrated in the PRISMA flow diagram (see Figure 1), 202 studies were identified through the electronic searches in the databases of PsychINFO and Pubmed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The included studies employed a range of different measurements for parenting style and anxiety and depression.

    “The included studies employed a range of different measurements for parenting style and anxiety and depression.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    34 studies were identified for possible inclusion from hand searching through possible studies' references.

    “In addition, 34 studies were identified for possible inclusion from hand searching through possible studies' references.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    In total, 33 cross-sectional studies and 5 longitudinal studies were identified among the included studies.

    “In total, 33 cross-sectional studies and 5 longitudinal studies were identified (see Table 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    All 38 included studies employed subjective measurements, not researcher observations, for the measurement of helicopter parenting.

    “All 38 studies employed subjective measurements, not researcher observations, for the measurement of helicopter parenting.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    91 studies were identified for full-text retrieval.

    “This resulted in 91 studies identified for full-text retrieval.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    1 study investigated both the controlling and overprotective dimension.

    “1 study investigated both the controlling and overprotective dimension”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    19 studies focused on the controlling dimension of helicopter parenting.

    “19 studies focused on the controlling dimension of helicopter parenting”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    14 studies investigated helicopter parenting as an independent construct.

    “While 14 studies investigated helicopter parenting as an independent construct”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    27 studies measured depression.

    “27 measured depression”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    27 studies measured anxiety.

    “A total amount of 27 studies measured anxiety”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The remaining 2 studies employed an additional reporter to the child or parent.

    “The remaining 2 studies employed an additional reporter to the child or parent.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Of the studies investigating a controlling parenting style, 3 focused solely upon maternal control.

    “of the studies investigating a controlling parenting style, 3 focused solely upon maternal control”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Five studies used both parent report and child report.

    “Thirty-one studies used only child reports and 5 studies used both parent report and child report.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    4 studies focused on the overprotective dimension.

    “4 on the overprotective dimension”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Two studies focused solely on maternal control.

    “In addition, 2 studies focused solely on maternal control”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Study quality was assessed in accordance with Campbells Validity Typology.

    “Study quality was assessed in accordance with Campbells Validity Typology.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Studies in which helicopter parenting was a moderator rather than a predictor of anxiety or depression were not included.

    “Studies in which helicopter parenting was a moderator rather than a predictor of the outcome of anxiety or depression were not included.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Studies conducted before 1985 were not considered.

    “Due to the fact that it has been argued that a major shift in parental involvement happened in 1985, studies conducted before then were not considered (Lythcott-Haims, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lythcott-Haims, 2015

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Different phases of childhood, from infancy to adolescence, require specific levels of protection and control to promote optimal developmental outcomes.

    “Different phases of childhood, from infancy to adolescence, require specific levels of protection and control to promote optimal developmental outcomes (Santrock, 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Santrock, 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Satisfaction of the basic needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness promotes health and wellbeing, while violation of these needs contributes to pathology and ill-being.

    “Ryan and Deci (2000) outline three basic needs that are innate in us all. If satisfied, these needs promotes health and wellbeing, but a violation of these needs contributes to pathology and ill-being.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ryan and Deci, 2000 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Another factor contributing to depression is the exercise of control over the depressing thoughts themselves.

    “Another factor contributing to depression is the exercise of control over the depressing thoughts themselves (Bandura et al., 1999).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bandura et al., 1999 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Studies where parental psychopathology was an area of focus were not included.

    “Studies where parental psychopathology was an area of focus were not included.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    This systematic review follows the guidelines of PRISMA.

    “This systematic review follows the guidelines of PRISMA: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (Moher et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Moher et al., 2010 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Methods of the analysis and inclusion criteria were specified in advance and documented in a protocol.

    “Methods of the analysis and inclusion criteria were specified in advanced and documented in a protocol.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    An individual cannot thrive without all three basic needs being fulfilled.

    “The self-determination theory argues that an individual cannot thrive without all of these being fulfilled, to the same degree that one cannot thrive with water and not food (Ryan and Deci, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ryan and Deci, 2000 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    A low sense of efficacy to exercise control over that which one values can give rise to feelings of futility, for instance through unfulfilled aspirations.

    “A low sense of efficacy to exercise control over that which one values can give rise to feelings of futility in several ways, for instance through unfulfilled aspirations (Bandura, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bandura, 2010 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    If an individual has a low sense of self-efficacy in addition to parents who reinforce this sense of danger by overprotectiveness, this could increase anxiety levels even more.

    “If an individual has a low sense of self-efficacy in addition to parents who reinforce this sense of danger by overprotectiveness, it would only be logical to assume that this could increase anxiety levels even more.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The protocol was modified during the review regarding inclusion criteria because including a pre-adolescent population led to heterogeneity that detracted from the coherence of the review.

    “We modified the protocol during the review regarding inclusion-criteria, as we found that including a pre-adolescent population led to heterogeneity that detracted from the coherence of the review.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Children need a certain level of parental control to learn how to be an effective member of society.

    “Children need a certain level of parental control to learn how to be an effective member of society, but they also need autonomy to develop competence and self-sufficiency (Barber et al., 1994).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Barber et al., 1994 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    To be included, studies had to have a valid and separate measurement of anxiety and/or depression.

    “Since this review is focused on the outcome of anxiety and depression, to be included in the review the studies would have to have a valid and separate measurement of one or both of these outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Only articles written in English were included.

    “Only articles written in English were included.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Studies with the aim to validate questionnaires concerning helicopter parenting were included.

    “Studies with the aim to validate questionnaires concerning helicopter parenting will also be included in the review.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Studies with a restricted, selective sample focusing on a somatic disease were not eligible.

    “Studies with a restricted, selective sample focusing on a somatic disease, were not eligible to be considered in this review.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    One reviewer assessed the validity of the eligible studies according to Campbell's Validity Typology, which considers internal, external, statistical conclusion, and construct validity.

    “One reviewer assessed the validity of the eligible studies according to Campbell's Validity Typology which considers four different types of validity; internal validity, external validity, statistical conclusion validity and construct validity (Shadish et al., 2002).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shadish et al., 2002

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Quantitative studies investigating the relationship between helicopter parenting and anxiety and/or depression were included in the review.

    “Quantitative studies which investigated the relationship between helicopter parenting and anxiety and/or depression were included in the review.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The titles and abstracts of studies were screened against eligibility criteria by one reviewer, with another reviewer consulted if uncertain.

    “Following this, the titles and abstracts of the studies were scoured through and applied to the eligibility criteria. Studies which were deemed ineligible were removed. This was done by one reviewer, however if that reviewer felt uncertain another reviewer was contacted to discuss whether that particular study was eligible or not.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Studies investigating the overprotective or controlling dimension of helicopter parenting were also included.

    “As helicopter parenting is a fairly new term (Padilla-Walker and Nelson, 2012) studies which investigated the overprotective or controlling dimension of helicopter parenting were also included.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Padilla-Walker and Nelson, 2012 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The transition to adulthood has changed drastically in just a few decades, with many young adults now living at home whilst unattached romantically.

    “Additionally, the transition to adulthood has changed drastically in just a few decades where many young adults now find themselves still living at home whilst unattached romantically (Schneider et al., 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schneider et al., 2016 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    To establish a causal relationship, one must examine whether the cause preceded the effect and if they are related, i.e., they covary.

    “To establish this relationship one must examine whether the cause preceded the effect and if they are related, i.e., they covary (Shadish et al., 2002).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shadish et al., 2002

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Helicopter parents who are over-controlling could reduce the child's sense of autonomy and competence, which could undermine their relationship with the child.

    “Helicopter parents who are over-controlling could reduce the sense of autonomy and competence in the child, which could again undermine their relationship with their child.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Studies deemed ineligible in the meeting were excluded and listed with reason.

    “Those studies that which were deemed ineligible in this meeting were excluded and listed with reason for their exclusion.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Studies employing an experimental design were excluded.

    “Additionally, studies employing an experimental design were excluded as this review is concerned with the actual parenting and the anxious or depressive behavior it may cause.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Children need autonomy to develop competence and self-sufficiency.

    “Children need a certain level of parental control to learn how to be an effective member of society, but they also need autonomy to develop competence and self-sufficiency (Barber et al., 1994).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Barber et al., 1994 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    One review author extracted the data into a chart in Excel specifically designed for this study.

    “One review author extracted the data into a chart in Excel specifically designed for this study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The two reviewers met to go through each full-text study collectively.

    “To increase the strength of the review the two reviewers met to go through each full text study collectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Experimentally manipulating parenting behavior would reduce ecological validity if it led to the parent suddenly acting in an uncommon and unexpected manner.

    “Experimentally manipulating parenting behavior in this instance would reduce ecological validity if this lead to the parent suddenly acting in an uncommon and unexpected manner.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The first reviewer read all studies in full text to confirm eligibility.

    “After screening the studies by their titles and abstracts the first reviewer read through all the studies in full text to further confirm eligibility.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    After the first reviewer determined the quality of the studies, the assessments were discussed with the second reviewer so that consensus regarding the validity could be reached.

    “After the first reviewer had determined the quality of the studies the assessments were discussed with the second reviewer so that consensus regarding the validity could be reached.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    No relationship between parental control and depression.

    “No relationship between parental control and depression”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Finkelstein et al. (2001) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    No relationship between anxiety and controlling parenting.

    “No relationship between anxiety and controlling parenting.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cai and Tu (2020) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    No direct effect of helicopter parenting on anxiety.

    “No direct effect of helicopter parenting and anxiety and depression”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Reed et al. (2016) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    No direct effect of helicopter parenting on depression.

    “No direct effect of helicopter parenting and anxiety and depression”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Reed et al. (2016) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    To fully elucidate the relationship between helicopter parenting and anxiety/depression, a longitudinal study design is needed.

    “If we are to fully elucidate this relationship we need to employ a longitudinal study design.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Self-report measures are dependent on the honesty of the respondents.

    “Self-report measures are dependent on the honesty of the respondents, but even if every respondent aimed to answer every item honestly, their introspective abilities could be lacking or they could be affected by common cognitive biases.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Cai and Tu (2020) only tested adolescent boys and their mothers, so their findings cannot be seen in context to family dynamic as a whole.

    “Cai and Tu (2020) only tested adolescent boys and their mothers, thus, their findings cannot be seen in context to family dynamic as a whole.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cai and Tu, 2020 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    To establish a causal relationship, there cannot be any plausible alternative explanations for the effect.

    “Additionally, there cannot be any plausible alternative explanations for the effect.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shadish et al., 2002

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: There is a causal link between helicopter parenting and the child outcomes of anxiety and depression.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A longitudinal study with validated measurements must be conducted to sufficiently investigate the relationship between helicopter parenting and anxiety and depression.

    “Thus, to investigate the relationship between helicopter parenting and anxiety and depression sufficiently, a longitudinal study, with validated measurements, must be conducted”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: There is a causal link between helicopter parenting and the child outcomes of anxiety and depression.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Even if every respondent aimed to answer every item honestly, their introspective abilities could be lacking or they could be affected by common cognitive biases.

    “Self-report measures are dependent on the honesty of the respondents, but even if every respondent aimed to answer every item honestly, their introspective abilities could be lacking or they could be affected by common cognitive biases.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In general, self-report measures are prone to bias and any results should be interpreted tentatively.

    “In general, self-report measures are prone to bias and any results should be interpreted tentatively (Shadish et al., 2002).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shadish et al., 2002

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    To establish a causal relationship, one must examine whether the cause preceded the effect and whether they covary.

    “To establish this relationship one must examine whether the cause preceded the effect and if they are related, i.e., they covary (Shadish et al., 2002).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shadish et al., 2002

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: There is a causal link between helicopter parenting and the child outcomes of anxiety and depression.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Each individual study was assessed in accordance with Campbell's Validity Typology considering internal validity, statistical conclusion validity, construct validity as well as external validity.

    “Each individual study was assessed in accordance with Campbell's Validity Typology considering internal validity, statistical conclusion validity, construct validity as well as external validity (Shadish et al., 2002).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shadish et al., 2002

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: There is a causal link between helicopter parenting and the child outcomes of anxiety and depression.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The authors had no commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

    “The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Only one reviewer conducted the initial screening procedure.

    “In addition, there was only one reviewer conducting the initial screening procedure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Mackie (1965) argued that effects, typically, have a plurality of conditional causes.

    “Mackie (1965) argued that effects, typically, have a plurality of conditional causes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mackie (1965)

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    On a societal level, helicopter parenting might be sufficient in creating an environment characterized by heightened focus on dangers and uncertainties that might lead to increased population anxiety and depression.

    “It might also be that on a societal level, helicopter parenting, is sufficient in creating an environment characterized by heightened focus on dangers and uncertainties that might lead to increased population anxiety and depression.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The findings of the analysis and the quality assessment were discussed with KB to reach a consensus.

    “The findings of the analysis and the quality assessment was discussed with KB to reach a consensus.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The records identified were screened first by JV and then collectively with KB.

    “The records identified were screened firstly by JV and then collectively with KB.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Only one reviewer undertook the electronic literature search, and consequently only two databases were searched for eligible studies.

    “There was only one reviewer undertaking the electronic literature search, consequently, it was decided that only two databases should be searched for eligible studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Some studies on helicopter parenting and anxiety/depression may exist in other relevant databases that were not found through this literature search or through scouring reference lists of included studies.

    “It might be that there are some studies covering the topic of helicopter parenting and anxiety and depression in other relevant databases that was not found through this literature search or through scouring the reference lists of the included studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    It is a cognitively difficult task to make estimates of potentially high-frequency behavior, such as conversations had with child, over longer periods of time, which in turn could lead to less precise estimations of their behavior.

    “It is a cognitively difficult task to make estimates of potentially high-frequency behavior, such as conversations had with child, over longer periods of time which in turn could lead to less precise estimations of their behavior (Tourangeau et al., 2000).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tourangeau et al., 2000 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The initial quality assessment was completed by one reviewer before it was later discussed with a second reviewer.

    “Akin to the other limitations mentioned, the initial quality assessment was completed by one reviewer before it was later discussed with a second reviewer.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Depressive mood fosters the recall of unhappy memories whilst inhibiting the recall of happy ones.

    “For instance, depressive mood fosters the recall of unhappy memories whilst inhibiting the recall of happy ones (Bower, 1981; Teasdale, 1983).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bower, 1981 source
    • cites Teasdale, 1983 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    This systematic review did not investigate possible age differences in the outcomes of anxiety and depression.

    “In addition, this systematic review did not investigate possible age differences in the outcomes of anxiety and depression.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Many parenting items can be considered highly sensitive in nature, which strengthens the chance that parents attempt to present their own parenting in a way that is more socially desirable rather than choosing the response reflective of their true behavior.

    “Many parenting items can be considered highly sensitive in nature which strengthens the chance that parents attempt to present their own parenting in a way that are more socially desirable rather than choosing the response reflective of their true behavior (Tourangeau et al., 2000).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tourangeau et al., 2000 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    We cannot rule out the chance that helicopter parenting is a sufficient condition for anxiety and depression but an INUS condition according to Mackie (1965).

    “However, since most of the studies did detect a relationship, we cannot rule out the chance that helicopter parenting is a sufficient condition for anxiety and depression but an INUS condition according to Mackie (1965).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mackie (1965)

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    A second reviewer was contacted when uncertainty arose and the two reviewers met to collectively go through the potential studies.

    “Even though a second reviewer was contacted when uncertainty arose and the two reviews met to collectively go through the potential studies, it is still a recommendation by PRISMA that at least two separate screenings take place (Liberati et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
97 of 97

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    No systematic review on the relationship between helicopter parenting and anxiety and/or depression exists.

    “However, no systematic review on the topic exists.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Helicopter parenting is a fairly new construct.

    “Since helicopter parenting is a fairly new construct, this review considered parental control and overprotective parenting to be dimensions of helicopter parenting and thus, eligible for the study.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Anxiety and depression are increasing on a societal scale.

    “Given the context of increasing levels of anxiety and depression on a societal scale, we need more knowledge about the specific role of helicopter parenting in promoting increasing levels of anxiety and depression.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    No systematic review has been conducted on the relationship between helicopter parenting and anxiety and depression.

    “Despite the attention this parenting style is receiving internationally, no systematic review has been conducted on the relationship between helicopter parenting and anxiety and depression.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Cross-sectional studies cannot establish the direction of effect.

    “Cross-sectional studies cannot establish the direction of effect.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    There is a causal link between helicopter parenting and the child outcomes of anxiety and depression.

    “The basic assumption is that there is a casual link between helicopter parenting and the child outcomes of anxiety and depression.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Parental control and overprotective parenting are dimensions of helicopter parenting.

    “Since helicopter parenting is a fairly new construct, this review considered parental control and overprotective parenting to be dimensions of helicopter parenting and thus, eligible for the study.”
7 of 7

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Basili anxiety finding is described as both absent and present

    Major

    The validity assessment says Basili et al. found no relationship with anxiety, whereas Table 4 reports an association between higher parental control and lower anxiety.

  • Reported mean age exceeds the study's age range

    Minor

    The Lieb et al. participants are listed as aged 14-17, but their reported mean age is 19.7. A mean cannot exceed the maximum age in the stated range.

  • A third maternal-control study is omitted from the depression summary

    Minor

    The depression summary counts two studies focused solely on maternal control that found a relationship with depression. Table 4 also labels Cai and Tu as a maternal-control study and reports that control predicted higher depressive symptoms.

  • Researcher-reported parenting measure contradicts the no-observations claim

    Minor

    The results say no included study used researcher observations to measure parenting, but Table 2 lists a researcher-reported family discussion task as Luis et al.'s parenting measure.

  • Basili is cited as finding increased anxiety despite reporting lower anxiety

    Minor

    Basili et al. is included among studies said to find increased anxiety with controlling parenting. Table 4 describes its association as lower, not increased, anxiety.

5 of 5

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 8

  1. Chen, 2011, Evaluating the reliability and validity of a traditional Chinese version of the PhoPhiKat-45, Psychol. Test., 58, 119
  2. Gray, 2015, Declining student resilience: a serious problem for colleges, Psychol. Today, 22, 9
  3. Grolnick, 1988, “Parent influences on children's school-related self-system process,”
  4. Holden, 2001, “Parenthood,”, 137
  5. Kovacs, 1992, CDI. Children's Depression Inventory
  6. Oh, 1982, The relationship between children's perception on and the affective characteristic of parental child-rearing style, Res. Note, 11, 1
  7. Santrock, 2019, Life-Span Development, 17th Edn
  8. Smeets, 1993, Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI), Version 1.1

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Vigdal, J. S., & Brønnick, K. K.
Affiliations
  • Western Norway University of Applied Sciences (NO)
  • Stavanger University Hospital (NO)
ORCID
Brønnick, Kolbjørn Kallesten
Venue
Frontiers in Psychology
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2022-05-25
Volume
13
Pages
872981-872981
ISSN
1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fpsyg.2022.872981
PMC
PMC9176408
OpenAlex
W4281490651
Semantic Scholar
c87e0b7bdfb4d08b3b64a8140199192421ac0b8c
Cited by
102
References
129
Citations by year
2026: 28 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 2
FWCI
3.38
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, public-domain)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
  • NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
Keywords
helicopter parenting, parental control, parental overprotection, childhood anxiety, childhood depression, child mental health, parenting styles, maternal and paternal parenting, causal inference

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-20.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-20.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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