A meta-analysis and review of holistic face processing.
Open accessAbstract
The concept of holistic processing is a cornerstone of face recognition research, yet central questions related to holistic processing remain unanswered, and debates have thus far failed to reach a resolution despite accumulating empirical evidence. We argue that a considerable source of confusion in this literature stems from a methodological problem. Specifically, 2 measures of holistic processing based on the composite paradigm (complete design and partial design) are used in the literature, but they often lead to qualitatively different results. First, we present a comprehensive review of the work that directly compares the 2 designs, and which clearly favors the complete design over the partial design. Second, we report a meta-analysis of holistic face processing according to both designs and use this as further evidence for one design over the other. The meta-analysis effect size of holistic processing in the complete design is nearly 3 times that of the partial design. Effect sizes were not correlated between measures, consistent with the suggestion that they do not measure the same thing. Our meta-analysis also examines the correlation between conditions in the complete design of the composite task, and suggests that in an individual differences context, little is gained by including a misaligned baseline. Finally, we offer a comprehensive review of the state of knowledge about holistic processing based on evidence gathered from the measure we favor based on the 1st sections of our review-the complete design-and outline outstanding research questions in that new context.
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Visual processing of faces appears to proceed holistically for the vast majority of people.
“visual processing of faces appears to proceed holistically for the vast majority of people (64, 65).”
From Deepfake detection by human crowds, machines, and machine-informed crowds (2022) · cites this paper as [64]
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Wong, A. C. ‐., Bukach, C. M., Hsiao, J. H., Greenspon, E. B., Ahern, E., Duan, Y., & Lui, K. F. H. (2012) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/12.13.7 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Gao, Z., Flevaris, A. V., Robertson, L. C., & Shlomo Bentin, A. (2011) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-011-0109-7 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Face to face with emotion: Holistic face processing is modulated by emotional state
Curby, K. M., Johnson, K., & Tyson, A. (2011) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2011.555752 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Behavioral Change and Its Neural Correlates in Visual Agnosia After Expertise Training
Behrmann, M., Marotta, J. J., Gauthier, L., Tarr, M. J., & McKeeff, T. J. (2005) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/0898929053467613 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Chess masters show a hallmark of face processing with chess.
Boggan, A. L., Bartlett, J. C., & Krawczyk, D. C. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0024236 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Context influences holistic processing of nonface objects in the composite task
Richler, J. J., Bukach, C. M., & Gauthier, L. (2009) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/app.71.3.530 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Self-citationMcKone, E. (2008) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2008.10.020 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Mixed emotions: Holistic and analytic perception of facial expressions
Butler, S., Tanaka, J. W., Kaiser, M. D., & Grand, R. L. (2010) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/9.8.496 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Wong, Y. K., & Gauthier, L. (2010) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.10.4.541 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
When intuition fails to align with data: A reply to Rossion (2013)
Richler, J. J., & Gauthier, L. (2013) · Visual Cognition · doi:10.1080/13506285.2013.796035 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Self-citationSpatial interactions in upright and inverted faces: Re-exploration of spatial scale influence
Goffaux, V. (2009) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2009.02.009 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Beliefs alter holistic face processing ... if response bias is not taken into account
Richler, J. J., Cheung, O. S., & Gauthier, L. (2011) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/11.13.17 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Self-citationThe influence of attention on holistic face encoding
Boutet, I. (2002) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/s0010-0277(02)00072-0 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Reliability of composite-task measurements of holistic face processing
Ross, D. A., Richler, J. J., & Gauthier, L. (2014) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-014-0497-4 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Self-citationConfigural processing in face recognition in schizophrenia
Schwartz, B. L., Marvel, C. L., Drapalski, A. L., Rosse, R. B., & Deutsch, S. I. (2002) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546800143000113 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Becoming a Lunari or Taiyo expert: Learned attention to parts drives holistic processing of faces.
Chua, K.-W., Richler, J. J., & Gauthier, L. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/a0035895 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Self-citationSmaller holistic processing of faces associated with face drawing experience
Zhou, G., Cheng, Z., Zhang, X., & Wong, A. C. ‐. (2012) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0174-x · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Activation of Fusiform Face Area by Greebles Is Related to Face Similarity but Not Expertise
Brants, M., Wagemans, J. P., & de Beeck, H. O. (2011) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00072 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Other-race effects manifest in overall performance, not qualitative processing style
Harrison, S. A., Gauthier, L., Hayward, W. G., et al. (2014) · Visual Cognition · doi:10.1080/13506285.2014.918912 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Disrupting perceptual grouping of face parts impairs holistic face processing
Curby, K. M., Goldstein, R. R., & Blacker, K. J. (2012) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-012-0386-9 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Hills, P. J., Cooper, R. E., & Pake, J. M. (2013) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.11.013 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Xu, B., & Tanaka, J. (2013) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/13.2.22 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
The nature of experience determines object representations in the visual system.
Wong, Y. K., Folstein, J. R., & Gauthier, L. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0027822 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
An analysis of letter expertise in a levels-of-categorization framework
Wong, A. C. ‐., & Gauthier, L. (2006) · Visual Cognition · doi:10.1080/13506280600948350 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Susilo, T., Rezlescu, C., & Duchaine, B. (2013) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/13.13.14 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Curby, K. M., & Gauthier, L. (2009) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/9.6.7 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
DeGutis, J., DeNicola, C. A., Zink, T. A., et al. (2011) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.04.031 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Does response interference contribute to face composite effects?
Richler, J. J., Cheung, O. S., Wong, A. C. ‐., et al. (2009) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/pbr.16.2.258 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationMusical expertise modulates the effects of visual perceptual load
Ro, T., Friggel, A., & Nilli Lavie, C. (2009) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/app.71.4.671 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Selective interference on the holistic processing of faces in working memory.
Cheung, O. S., & Gauthier, L. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/a0016471 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Perceptual expertise with objects predicts another hallmark of face perception
McGugin, R. W. (2010) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/10.4.15 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Does temporal integration of face parts reflect holistic processing?
Cheung, O. S., Richler, J. J., Phillips, W. S., et al. (2011) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0051-7 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationErroneous interpretation of difference scores: Application to a recent example
Humphreys, L. G. (1990) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(90)90005-e · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Engel, S. A., Harley, E. M., Pope, W. B., et al. (2009) · Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering/Proceedings of SPIE · doi:10.1117/12.812250 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Butko NJ Fasel I Movellan JR Learning about humans during the first 6 minutes of life International Conference on Development and Learning Indiana 2006
- Rossion B Gauthier I Tarr MJ Despland PA Bruyer R Linotte S Crommelinck M The N170 occipito-temporal component is enhanced and delayed to inverted faces but not to inverted objects: An electrophysiological account of face-specific processes in the human brain Neuroreport 2000 11 69 74 10683832
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Deepfake detection by human crowds, machines, and machine-informed crowds
Groh, M., Epstein, Z., Firestone, C., & Picard, R. (2022) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2110013119 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
Impaired recognition of faces and objects in dyslexia: Evidence for ventral stream dysfunction?
Sigurdardottir, H. M., Ívarsson, E., Kristinsdóttir, K., & Kristjánsson, Á. (2015) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000188 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
- Authors
- Richler, J. J., & Gauthier, I.
- Affiliations
- Vanderbilt University (US)
- ORCID
- Richler, Jennifer J.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2014
- Volume
- 140
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1281-1302
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- PMC
- PMC4152424
- OpenAlex
- W2085435393
- Cited by
- 340
- References
- 146
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 39 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 12.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Eye Institute (2 R01 EY013441-06A2)
- National Science Foundation (SBE-0542013)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Face recognition and analysis
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Face and Expression Recognition
- Keywords
- holistic face processing, face recognition (cognition), partial design, individual differences, face perception
- MeSH terms
- Face, Facial Expression, Humans, Individuality, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Perception, Recognition, Psychology
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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