The DOI matches its Crossref record; 71 of the 71 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Testing (quizzing) boosts classroom learning: a systematic and meta-analytic review
Abstract
Over the last century hundreds of studies have demonstrated that testing is an effective intervention to enhance long-term retention of studied knowledge and facilitate mastery of new information, compared with restudying and many other learning strategies (e.g., concept mapping), a phenomenon termed the testing effect. How robust is this effect in applied settings beyond the laboratory? The current review integrated 48,478 students' data, extracted from 222 independent studies, to investigate the magnitude, boundary conditions, and psychological underpinnings of test-enhanced learning in the classroom. The results show that overall testing (quizzing) raises student academic achievement to a medium extent (g = 0.499). The magnitude of the effect is modulated by a variety of factors, including learning strategy in the control condition, test format consistency, material matching, provision of corrective feedback, number of test repetitions, test administration location and timepoint, treatment duration, and experimental design. The documented findings support 3 theories to account for the classroom testing effect: additional exposure, transfer-appropriate processing, and motivation. In addition to their implications for theory development, these results have practical significance for enhancing teaching practice and guiding education policy and highlight important directions for future research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
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In the citing paper
“Yang et al. (2021), in a large-scale meta-analysis of studies conducted in real classrooms, confirmed that the effect is observable across educational levels and learning outcomes—ranging from factual knowledge to conceptual understanding and even problem-solving.”
From Testing the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning (2026) · cites this paper as Yang et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“Moreover, the instructional materials used were derived from well-established materials (e.g., Mayer and Chandler, 2001; Pan et al., 2023), and the outcome measures targeted both factual recall and application, which are domains where testing effects typically emerge (Yang et al., 2021).”
From Testing the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning (2026) · cites this paper as Yang et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“Moreover, the instructional materials used were derived from well-established materials (e.g., Mayer and Chandler, 2001; Pan et al., 2023), and the outcome measures targeted both factual recall and application, which are domains where testing effects typically emerge (Yang et al., 2021).”
From Testing the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning (2026) · cites this paper as Yang et al., 2021
Citations
Cites
A national experiment reveals where a growth mindset improves achievement
Yeager, D. S., Hanselman, P., Walton, G. M., Murray, J. S., Crosnoe, R., Muller, C., Tipton, E., Schneider, B., Hulleman, C. S., Hinojosa, C. P., et al. (2019) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1466-y · Cited by 1,513 · cited 1×
“In addition, as noted by many educators and researchers, “in real-world [educational] settings, a fifth of a standard deviation [0.20 SD] is a large effect” (Dynarski, 2017; Yeager et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialMotivation Interventions in Education: A Meta-Analytic Review
Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654315617832 · Cited by 607
Averaging correlation coefficients: Should Fisher’s z transformation be used?
Silver, N. C., & Dunlap, W. P. (1987) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.72.1.146 · Cited by 606
Correcting for Bias in Psychology: A Comparison of Meta-Analytic Methods
Carter, E. C., Schönbrodt, F. D., Gervais, W. M., & Hilgard, J. (2019) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2515245919847196 · Cited by 588
Testing the testing effect in the classroom
McDaniel, M. A., Anderson, J. L., Derbish, M. H., & Morrisette, N. (2007) · European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541440701326154 · Cited by 563
Clickers in college classrooms: Fostering learning with questioning methods in large lecture classes
Mayer, R. E., Stull, A. T., DeLeeuw, K. E., Almeroth, K. C., Bimber, B., Chun, D. M., Bulger, M., Campbell, J., Knight, A., & Zhang, H. (2008) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.04.002 · Cited by 480
Test-enhanced learning in the classroom: Long-term improvements from quizzing.
Roediger, H. L., III, Agarwal, P. K., McDaniel, M. A., & McDermott, K. B. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/a0026252 · Cited by 416
McShane, B. B., Böckenholt, U., & Hansen, K. T. (2016) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691616662243 · Cited by 398
The Positive and Negative Consequences of Multiple-Choice Testing.
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
The science of effective learning with spacing and retrieval practice
Carpenter, S. K., Pan, S. C., & Butler, A. C. (2022) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-022-00089-1 · Cited by 184
Effective Teacher Professional Development: New Theory and a Meta-Analytic Test
Sims, S., Fletcher-Wood, H., O’Mara-Eves, A., Cottingham, S., Stansfield, C., Goodrich, J., Herwegen, J. V., & Anders, J. (2023) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543231217480 · Cited by 383
“Causal evidence that this aids with learning in lab settings, as well as in history, math, and language learning at school, can be found in the reviews by Adesope et al. (2017), Rohrer (2015), and Yang (2021).”
The cognitive principles of learning underlying the 5E Model of Instruction
Martín, H. R., & Bybee, R. W. (2022) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-022-00337-z · Cited by 148
“, quizzing) that avoid the detrimental effects of stress associated with testing (McDaniel et al., 2011; Wenzel & Reinhard, 2021; Yang et al., 2021).”
BackgroundSelf-motivated and directed learning across the lifespan
Cronin-Golomb, L. M., & Bauer, P. J. (2022) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103816 · Cited by 83
Students Can (Mostly) Recognize Effective Learning, So Why Do They Not Do It?
Rea, S. D., Wang, L., Muenks, K. M., & Yan, V. X. (2022) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence10040127 · Cited by 90
Metadata
- Authors
- Yang, C., Luo, L., Vadillo, M. A., Yu, R., & Shanks, D. R.
- Affiliations
- Beijing Normal University (CN)
- Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (ES)
- National University of Singapore (SG)
- University College London (GB)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2021-04
- Volume
- 147
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 399-435
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W3134904819
- Cited by
- 333
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 57 · 2025: 84 · 2024: 80 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 19
- FWCI
- 25.11
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Biblos-e Archivo (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Funders
- Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (2019NTSS28)
- Natural Science Foundation of China (31671130; 32000742)
- NUS FASS RSB-PDF Scheme under WBS (C-581-000-207-532; C-581-000-777-532)
- Economic and Social Research Council (ES/S014616/1)
- MadrID Science Foundation (2016-T1/SOC-1395)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Keywords
- testing effect, quizzing, classroom learning, academic performance, long-term retention, restudying, corrective feedback, transfer-appropriate processing, motivation, boundary conditions, learning strategies
- MeSH terms
- Academic Success, Humans, Learning, Motivation, Students, Test Taking Skills
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