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The epidemiology of co-occurring addictive and mental disorders: Implications for prevention and service utilization.

Kessler, Ronald C., Nelson, Christopher B., McGonagle, Katherine A., Edlund, Mark J., Frank, Richard G., Leaf, Philip J.·1996·American Journal of Orthopsychiatry

DOI 10.1037/h0080151

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Abstract

General population data from the National Comorbidity Survey are presented on co-occurring DSM-III-R addictive and mental disorders. Co-occurrence is highly prevalent in the general population and usually due to the association of a primary mental disorder with a secondary addictive disorder. It is associated with a significantly increased probability of treatment, although the finding that fewer than half of cases with 12-month co-occurrence received any treatment in the year prior to interview suggests the need for greater outreach efforts.

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“Among these, one may count increased illness severity, chronicity, treatment resistance (Hirschfeld, Hasin, Keller, Endicott, & Wunder, 1990; Kessler, 1995; Kessler et al., 1996; Murphy, 1990), and–when co-occurring with physical illness —premature mortality (Felker, Yazel, & Short, 1996; Hser, Hoffman, Grella, & Angl…”
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“Along with other accumulating data from the 1980s and 1990s ( Kessler, Nelson, McGonagle et al., 1996; Regier, Farmer, Rae et al., 1990), this indicates that co-existing disorders are so common that it might be considered the expectation rather than the exception (Minkoff, 2001).”
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“Introduction The co-occurrence of alcohol dependence (AD) and major depressive disorder (MDD) has been well established, and epidemiological assessments of AD and MDD have linked AD to higher risk of depression and vice versa (Woodruff et al., 1973; Kessler et al., 1996; Swendsen and Merikangas, 2000; Crum et al., 200…”
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“Psychological distress and reliance on alcohol for the relief of such symptoms are also predictive of the development of alcohol abuse and dependence, and are considered to be important clinical signs of an existing problem (Kessler et al., 1996, 1997).”
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“Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is one anxiety disorder that has a particularly high prevalence among people with alcohol-use disorders (Adams et al. 2006; Brady et al. 2000; Breslau et al. 1997; Engel et al. 1999; Ikin et al. 2004; Kessler et al. 1995; 1996).”
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“NCS, one in fi ve people with a lifetime history of a DSM-III-R anxiety disorder fulfilled, in addition, diagnostic criteria for alcohol dependence (range across specific forms of anxiety disorders: 21%–30%) and about 15% fulfilled criteria for drug dependence (range 15%–23%; Kessler et al. 1996 ).”
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“Kessler et al. (1996) have found evidence that a primary mental disorder usually precedes a secondary addictive disorder among the general population, while Baker et al. (2004) finds that psychological symptoms increase following initiation of amphetamine use.”
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“…(Brown & Schuckit, 1988; Davidson, 1995), (2) depression and anxiety lead to problematic alcohol use (Cheng, Gau, Chen, Chang, & Chang, 2004; Kessler et al., 1996; Hartka, Johnstone, Leino, Motoyoshi, Temple and Fillmore, 1991), and (3) alcohol, mood, and anxiety disorders are all…”
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“223], but a significant effect of stress [F(5,70) = 31.”
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“…rates of psychiatric comorbidity have been reported among treatment-naïve individuals with SUD compared to those who have received treatment (Compton, Thomas, Stinson, & Grant, 2007; Di Sclafani, Finn, & Fein, 2008; Hasin, Stinson, Ogburn, & Grant, 2007; Kessler et al., 1996; Wang et al., 2005b).”
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“associated to more negative effects on mental health [47].”
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“%) in recent years (Brady et al., 1991 ; Kessler et al., 1996 ; Miller et al., 1989; Regier et al., 1990 ; Strakowski and Del Bello, 2000), and is particularly high among adolescents and young adults (Deykin et al., 1992 ; Paton et al., 1977 ; Rabinowitz et al., 1998; Strakowski et al., 1993).”
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“Thus, in agreement with earlier reports (e.g. Kessler et al., 1996; Regier et al., 1990), it would appear that CD (the developmental precursor of ASPD), is more likely to predispose a more general elevated risk of illicit drug and other substance abuse.”
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“Epidemiological studies have consistently established high comorbidity between psychiatric disorders and substance use disorders (SUD) [1-5].”
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“Among individuals with a current SUD, between 17.7%-35.6% also have a current comorbid anxiety disorder (Grant et al., 2004; Kessler et al., 1996).”
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“In 1996, Kessler et al [20] reported that approximately 50% of those with a substance use disorder would have a co-occurring mental disorder in their lifetime.”
Background
Improving Health and Social Outcomes with Targeted Services in Comprehensive Substance Abuse Treatment
Cao, D., Marsh, J. C., Shin, H.-C., & Andrews, C. M. (2011) · The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse · doi:10.3109/00952990.2011.591016 · Cited by 22
“Given the high rate of co-occurring mental health problems among individuals in substance abuse treatment (23,24), it is useful to know that targeted mental health services can have a significant and durable effect.”
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Improving the retention rate for residential treatment of substance abuse by sequential intervention for social anxiety
Staiger, P. K., Kyrios, M., Williams, J. S., Kambouropoulos, N., Howard, A., & Gruenert, S. (2014) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-14-43 · Cited by 22
“According to National Comorbidity Survey data [28,29], SAD is the most commonly reported anxiety disorder.”
Increased alcohol consumption in rats after subchronic antidepressant treatment
Alén, F., Orío, L., Gorriti, M. Á., de Heras, R. G., Ramírez-López, M. T., Pozo, M. A., & de Fonseca, F. R. (2013) · The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1017/s1461145713000217 · Cited by 22
“Conversely, around 80% of alcoholics would complain of depressive symptoms at some time in their lives and in >30% of those cases the criteria for major depressive disorder were fulfilled (Regier et al., 1990; Kessler et al., 1996).”
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The Psychopharmacology Algorithm Project at the Harvard South Shore Program: An Algorithm for Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Abejuela, H. R., & Osser, D. N. (2016) · Harvard Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/hrp.0000000000000098 · Cited by 23
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Training psychiatrists to diagnose and treat substance abuse disorders
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“The National Comorbidity Survey found an OR of 2.4 for comorbidity between any lifetime alcohol or drug use disorder and any lifetime mental disorder as defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third Edition (DSM) [ 3 ].”
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Detecting psychological symptoms related to substance use among Indigenous Australians
Dingwall, K. M., & Cairney, S. J. (2011) · Drug and Alcohol Review · doi:10.1111/j.1465-3362.2010.00194.x · Cited by 22
Stress and drug abuse
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Hepatitis and HIV screening, education, and treatment for adults with serious mental illness
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Comorbidity among depression, anxiety and stress symptoms in naturalistic clinical samples: A cross‐cultural network analysis
Mihić, L., Janičić, B., Marchetti, I., Novović, Z., Sica, C., Bottesi, G., Belopavlović, R., & Jakšić, N. (2023) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2927 · Cited by 21
Co-occurring Mental Disorders in Substance Abuse Treatment: the Current Health Care Situation in Germany
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“…have consistently shown the high co-occurrence and the elevated risk of mental disorders in individuals with substance use disorders (Baldacchino and Corkery 2006; Flensborg-Madsen et al. 2009; Kessler et al. 1996, 2005; Lieb et al. 2010), which can especially be observed in clinical samples.”
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Depressive Symptoms in People with and without Alcohol Abuse: Factor Structure and Measurement Invariance of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) Across Groups
Skule, C., Ulleberg, P., Lending, H. D., Berge, T., Egeland, J., Brennen, T., & Landrø, N. I. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0088321 · Cited by 21
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Does depression and substance abuse co-morbidity affect socioeconomic status? Evidence from a prospective study of urban African Americans
Dagher, R. K., & Green, K. M. (2014) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2014.10.026 · Cited by 21
“This consistent finding in the literature of a strong association between substance use disorders and depression has been documented in both national and community studies (Kessler et al., 1996; Swendsen et al., 1998; Grant et al., 2004; Roberts et al., 2007; Green et al., 2012).”
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Diagnostic profiles of offenders in substance abuse treatment programs.
Grella, C., Greenwell, L., Prendergast, M., Sacks, S., & Melnick, G. (2008) · Behavioral sciences & the law · doi:10.1002/bsl.825 · Cited by 23
“This finding is not surprising, given the substantially higher prevalence of mood disorders among women, both in the general population (Kessler et al., 1996) and in samples from correctional settings (Fazel & Danesh, 2002; Jordan, Schlenger, Fairbank, & Caddell, 1996; Pelissier & O’Neil, 2000).”
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Hospitalizations and hospital charges for co-occurring substance use and mental disorders
Ding, K., Yang, J. G., Cheng, G., Schiltz, T., Summers, K. M., & Skinstad, A. H. (2011) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2010.12.005 · Cited by 21
Deployment‐Related Military Sexual Trauma Predicts Heavy Drinking and Alcohol Problems Among Male Reserve and National Guard Soldiers
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“PTSD is highly comorbid with both SUDs (Jacobsen et al., 2001; Kessler et al., 1996) and MST (Kimerling et al., 2007, 2010; Suris and Lind, 2008).”
BackgroundInfluential
Using the Syndrome Model of Addiction: a Preliminary Consideration of Psychological States and Traits
Shaffer, H. J., Tom, M. A., Wiley, R. C., Wong, M. F.-Y., Chan, E. M. L., Cheng, G. L. F., Lo, C. K. M., Eric, K. Y., Wong, R. H. Y., & Lee, M. (2018) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-018-9952-2 · Cited by 21
Prevalence of Mental Health Disorders among Individuals Enrolled in an Emergency Response Program for Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder
Bakos‐Block, C., Langabeer, J. R., Yatsco, A. J., Cárdenas-Turanzas, M., & Champagne‐Langabeer, T. (2020) · Substance Abuse Research and Treatment · doi:10.1177/1178221820981998 · Cited by 21
The Mental Health Benefits of Work: Do They Apply to Welfare Mothers with a Drinking Problem?
Zabkiewicz, D., & Schmidt, L. A. (2008) · The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research · doi:10.1007/s11414-008-9148-9 · Cited by 21
Repensando el concepto de adicciones: pasos hacia la patología dual
Marín-Navarrete, R., Unidad de Ensayos Clínicos en Adicciones y Salud Mental. Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, M., (SEPD)., S. E. D. P. D., & Szerman, N. (2015) · Salud Mental · doi:10.17711/sm.0185-3325.2015.060 · Cited by 21
Advances and Redirections in Understanding Effects of Fetal Drug Exposure
Singer, L. T. (1999) · Journal of Drug Issues · doi:10.1177/002204269902900207 · Cited by 21
“The co-morbidity of mental health and substance abuse disorders has been well established, with estimates that approximately 40 to 50 percent ofsubstance abusers have a concurrent mental health diagnosis (Kandel et al. 1998; Kessler et al. 1996; Peindl et al. 1998).”
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Psychiatric Symptomatology and Psychological Functioning in HIV-Infected Mothers
Mellins, C. A., Ehrhardt, A. Α., & Grant, W. F. (1997) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1023/a:1026227418721 · Cited by 21
Bipolar Disorder in Children and Adolescents
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Overview of Descriptive Epidemiology of Mental Disorders
Kessler, R. C., & Zhao, S. (1999) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/0-387-36223-1_7 · Cited by 21
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A study of depression among patients of substance use disorder
Pradhan, S. N., Sc, S., Shrestha, M., & Shrestha, S. (2013) · Journal of Kathmandu Medical College · doi:10.3126/jkmc.v1i2.8145 · Cited by 20
Dual Diagnosis Resource Needs in Spain: A National Survey of Professionals
Szerman, N., Vega, P., Grau‐López, L., Barral, C., Basurte-Villamor, I., Mesías, B., Rodríguez-Cintas, L., Martı́nez-Raga, J., Casas, M., & Roncero, C. (2014) · Journal of Dual Diagnosis · doi:10.1080/15504263.2014.906195 · Cited by 20
“…United States (the Epidemiological Catchment Area study or ECA, Regier et al., 1990; the National Comorbidity Survey or NCS, Kessler et al., 1994; Kessler et al., 1996; the National Comorbidity Survey Replication or NCS-R, Kessler, Chiu, Demler, Merikangas, & Walters, 2005; Gadermann, Alonso,…”
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“…the National Comorbidity Survey from 1996 found that 41.0–65.5% of individuals with a lifetime substance use disorder suffer from at least one mental health disorder, and that 50.9% of individuals with a mental health disorder have at least one substance use disorder (Kessler et al., 1996).”
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Neuroimaging Studies in Patients With Mental Disorder and Co-occurring Substance Use Disorder: Summary of Findings
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“Most epidemiological studies indicate that in terms of occurrence, the mental disorder has a temporal priority (4, 5, 13, 17, 18), thus lending credibility to the so-called “self-medication” hypothesis (19, 20), considering SUD as a secondary result of repeating substance use in an attempt to alleviate mental disorder…”
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Stress‐induced escalation of alcohol self‐administration, anxiety‐like behavior, and elevated amygdala Avp expression in a susceptible subpopulation of rats
Barchiesi, R., Chanthongdee, K., Domi, E., Gobbo, F., Coppola, A., Asratian, A., Toivainen, S., Holm, L., Augier, G., Xu, L. X., et al. (2021) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.13009 · Cited by 20
“Comorbid AUD and ANX is a significant public health problem with more severe symptoms and poorer treatment outcomes compared to either of the conditions alone.(3) Few, if any, evidenced-based treat-”
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Authors: Kessler, R. C., Nelson, C. B., McGonagle, K. A., Edlund, M. J., Frank, R. G., & Leaf, P. J.
Affiliations: University of Michigan (US)
Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry (DE)
Harvard University (US)
Johns Hopkins University (US)
ORCID: Kessler, Ronald C.
Nelson, Christopher B.
Edlund, Mark J.
Frank, Richard G.
Venue: American Journal of Orthopsychiatry
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1996
Volume: 66
Issue: 1
Pages: 17-31
ISSN: 0002-9432 (ISSN-L)
1939-0025
DOI: 10.1037/h0080151
OpenAlex: W2058704610
Cited by: 1,378
References: 46
Citations by year: 2026: 10 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 36 · 2019: 36 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 50 · 2015: 49 · 2014: 77 · 2013: 73 · 2012: 67
FWCI: 26.05
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: American Journal of Orthopsychiatry (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Gambling Behavior and Treatments
Keywords: co-occurring disorders, substance use disorders, mental illness, comorbidity prevalence, treatment utilization, mental health services, prevention, National Comorbidity Survey
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Mental Disorders, Humans, Middle Aged, Prevalence, Behavior, Addictive, Age of Onset, Age Distribution

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The epidemiology of co-occurring addictive and mental disorders: Implications for prevention and service utilization.

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