Cited by 465Gut microbiota and healthNutritional Studies and DietProbiotics and Fermented Foods

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A vegan or vegetarian diet substantially alters the human colonic faecal microbiota

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Zimmer, J, Lange, B, Frick, J-S, Sauer, H, Zimmermann, K, Schwiertz, A, Rusch, K, Klosterhalfen, S, Enck, P·2012·European Journal of Clinical Nutrition

DOI 10.1038/ejcn.2011.141

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Abstract

Background/objectives Consisting of ≈10(14) microbial cells, the intestinal microbiota represents the largest and the most complex microbial community inhabiting the human body. However, the influence of regular diets on the microbiota is widely unknown.Subjects/methods We examined faecal samples of vegetarians (n=144), vegans (n=105) and an equal number of control subjects consuming ordinary omnivorous diet who were matched for age and gender. We used classical bacteriological isolation, identification and enumeration of the main anaerobic and aerobic bacterial genera and computed absolute and relative numbers that were compared between groups.Results Total counts of Bacteroides spp., Bifidobacterium spp., Escherichia coli and Enterobacteriaceae spp. were significantly lower (P=0.001, P=0.002, P=0.006 and P=0.008, respectively) in vegan samples than in controls, whereas others (E. coli biovars, Klebsiella spp., Enterobacter spp., other Enterobacteriaceae, Enterococcus spp., Lactobacillus spp., Citrobacter spp. and Clostridium spp.) were not. Subjects on a vegetarian diet ranked between vegans and controls. The total microbial count did not differ between the groups. In addition, subjects on a vegan or vegetarian diet showed significantly (P=0.0001) lower stool pH than did controls, and stool pH and counts of E. coli and Enterobacteriaceae were significantly correlated across all subgroups.Conclusions Maintaining a strict vegan or vegetarian diet results in a significant shift in the microbiota while total cell numbers remain unaltered.

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Drivers of Clostridioides difficile hypervirulent ribotype 027 spore germination, vegetative cell growth and toxin production in vitro
Yuille, S., Mackay, W. G., Morrison, D. J., & Tedford, C. M. (2019) · Clinical Microbiology and Infection · doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2019.11.004 · Cited by 14
Diet and Proteinuria: State of Art
Ria, P., Pascalis, A. D., Zito, A., Barbarini, S., Napoli, M., Gigante, A., & Sorice, G. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms24010044 · Cited by 15
“This acidification reduces the growth of potentially pathogenic bacteria [75].”
Background
Genome–nutrition divergence: evolving understanding of the malnutrition spectrum
Eaton, J., & Iannotti, L. L. (2017) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1093/nutrit/nux055 · Cited by 18
“Differences in predominant microbiota are also observed between people in the same population consuming different diets: Vegetarians in both the United States and Europe, for example, harbor microbial communities distinct from those found in omnivores.(92,94) Emerging evidence also points to the causal role of gut bac…”
Background
The gut microbiota: cause and cure of gut diseases
White, L. S., van den Bogaerde, J., & Kamm, M. A. (2018) · The Medical Journal of Australia · doi:10.5694/mja17.01067 · Cited by 14
A dietary intervention for postmenopausal hot flashes: A potential role of gut microbiome. An exploratory analysis
Kahleová, H., Holtz, D. N., Strom, N., Reau, A. L., Kolipaka, S., Schmidt, N., Hata, E., Znayenko‐Miller, T., Holubkov, R., & Barnard, N. D. (2023) · Complementary Therapies in Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2023.103002 · Cited by 13
Relationship between Infant Feeding and the Microbiome: Implications for Allergies and Food Intolerances
Herrera‐Quintana, L., Vázquez‐Lorente, H., Hinojosa-Nogueira, D., & Plaza‐Díaz, J. (2024) · Children · doi:10.3390/children11081030 · Cited by 14
“Currently, we do not know how the introduction of complementary food (diversity of diet and food choices), after a diet consisting exclusively of milk, specifically affects the structure, diversity, and taxonomy of gut microbes [89,90].”
Background
Differential gut microbiota composition in β-Thalassemia patients and its correlation with iron overload
Nonejuie, P., Wilantho, A., McDonald, D. T., Htoo, H. H., Chalerm, J., Tripathi, A., Ngamphiw, C., Tongsima, S., Knight, R. D., Paiboonsukwong, K., et al. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-75456-4 · Cited by 13
“Additionally, as high levels of SCFAs have been shown to inhibit the growth of Enterobacteriaceae 57,58 , this could possibly explain the higher prevalence of Enterobacteriaceae in thalassemic patients.”
Coronary microvascular and endothelial function regulation: Crossroads of psychoneuroendocrine immunitary signals and quantum physics [Part B]
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Engineering the Microbiome: a Novel Approach to Immunotherapy for Allergic and Immune Diseases
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Diet induces parallel changes to the gut microbiota and problem solving performance in a wild birdPreprint
Davidson, G. L., Wiley, N., Cooke, A. C., Johnson, C. N., Fouhy, F., Reichert, M. S., de la Hera, I., Crane, J. M. S., Kulahci, I. G., Ross, R. P., et al. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/827741 · Cited by 13
Nutritional Approaches Targeting Gut Microbiota in Oxidative-Stress-Associated Metabolic Syndrome: Focus on Early Life Programming
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“Additionally, vegan diets rich in fiber have been linked to increased SCFA production, supporting overall cardiometabolic health [150].”
Background
Microbial metabolites derived from colonic fermentation of non-digestible compounds
Tabernero, M., & de Cedrón, M. G. (2017) · Current Opinion in Food Science · doi:10.1016/j.cofs.2017.03.005 · Cited by 13
The relationship between calcium oxalate lithiasis and chronic proinflammatory intestinal dysbiosis pattern: a prospective study
Millán, F., Rubio, L. S., Girón, I., Sánchez-Martín, F. M., Emiliani, E., & Angerri, O. (2020) · Urolithiasis · doi:10.1007/s00240-020-01181-y · Cited by 12
“Faecal analysis was carried out by means of RT-PCR 16S rRNA assay and agar plaque culture, according to the technique proposed by the Institute of Microecology [38, 39, 41].”
Method
Nutritional supplements and functional foods
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Human gut microbiome: A primer for the clinician
Kedia, S., & Ahuja, V. (2023) · JGH Open · doi:10.1002/jgh3.12902 · Cited by 12
“Bifidobacteria Zimmer et al. (2012)/ Adults Germany Vegetarians versus vegans versus omnivores Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, Escherichia coli, Enterobacteriaceae low”
Background
Association between primary Sjögren’s syndrome and gut microbiota disruption: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Shen, Y., Xue, Y., Wang, Q., Yao, X., Lu, D., Zhou, D., & Wang, X. (2023) · Clinical Rheumatology · doi:10.1007/s10067-023-06754-x · Cited by 15
Faecal Microbiota of Dogs Offered a Vegetarian Diet with or without the Supplementation of Feather Meal and either Cornmeal, Rye or Fermented Rye: A Preliminary Study
Hankel, J., El-Wahab, A. A., Grone, R., Keller, B., Gálvez, E. J. C., Strowig, T., & Visscher, C. (2020) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms8091363 · Cited by 11
“The administration of a strict vegan or vegetarian diet results in a significant shift in the microbiota of humans [8,9] with certain benefits like having a greater richness compared to omnivores [9] or reducing intestinal inflammation [10].”
Background
Gut microbiota in post-acute COVID-19 syndrome: not the end of the story
An, Y., He, L., Xu, X. Y., Piao, M., Wang, B., Liu, T., & Cao, H. (2024) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2024.1500890 · Cited by 12
“…vegans and omnivorous diet subjects showed that the abundance of Bacteroides , Escherichia coli and Enterobacteriaceae in vegetarians was significantly reduced compared with the omnivorous control group, while the subjects on vegetarians ranked between vegans and controls (Zimmer et al., 2012).”
Gut Microbiota and Immunoglobulin A Nephropathy: Exploration of Dietary Intervention and Treatment Strategies
Dong, Z., Zhang, R., Shen, L., Ji, H., He, H., Ji, X., & Zhao, L. (2025) · Food Science & Nutrition · doi:10.1002/fsn3.70218 · Cited by 11
“SCFAs lower intestinal pH, an important indicator of gut health, and inhibit the growth of potentially pathogenic bacteria like Enterobacteriaceae (den Besten et al. 2013; Zimmer et al. 2012; Ghosh et al. 2011).”
Clinical Relevance of Gastrointestinal Microbiota During Pregnancy: A Primer for Nurses
Chung, S.-Y., Ravel, J., & Regan, M. B. (2017) · Biological Research For Nursing · doi:10.1177/1099800417732412 · Cited by 13
“Alternatively, vegans or vegetarians have reduced densities of Escherichia coli (Proteobacteria phylum), the Enterobacteriaceae family (Proteobacteria phylum), Bacteroides spp. (Bacteroidetes phylum), and Bifidobacterium spp. (Actinobacteria phylum; Zimmer et al., 2012).”
Background
Colorectal Cancer Prevention with a Plant-Based diet
Rose, S. (2019) · Cancer therapy & Oncology International Journal · doi:10.19080/ctoij.2019.15.555906 · Cited by 9
“[206] set out to distinguish the fecal microbiota profile of vegans from that of vegetarians, and from an equal number of controls consuming an omnivorous diet.”
Background
Endocrine Disruption and the Gut Microbiome
Acharya, K. D., Parakoyi, A. E. R., & Tetel, M. J. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-821985-0.00015-3 · Cited by 11
Veganism - a Fashion Trend or Food as a Medicine
Jovandarić, M. Z. (2020) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.78107 · Cited by 10
Maternal Dietary Strategies for Improving Offspring Cardiovascular–Kidney–Metabolic Health: A Scoping Review
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Consensus document on exclusion diets in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
Casellas, F., Burgos, R., Marcos, A., Santos, J., Ríos, C. C. D. L., García‐Manzanares, Á., Polanco, I., Portillo, M. P., Villarino, A. L., Lema-Marqués, B., et al. (2018) · Revista Española de Enfermedades Digestivas · doi:10.17235/reed.2018.5941/2018 · Cited by 18
Myoglobin diet affected the colonic mucus layer and barrier by increasing the abundance of several beneficial gut bacteria
Jiang, S., Xue, D., Zhang, M., Li, Q., Liu, H., Zhao, D., Zhou, G., & Li, C. (2022) · Food & Function · doi:10.1039/d2fo01799g · Cited by 10
Smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora), a potential food source for Apostichopus japonicus
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Fracture Risk in Vegetarians and Vegans: the Role of Diet and Metabolic Factors
Ogilvie, A. R., McGuire, B. D., Meng, L., & Shapses, S. A. (2022) · Current Osteoporosis Reports · doi:10.1007/s11914-022-00754-7 · Cited by 9
Bifidobacteria, Lactobacilli, and Short Chain Fatty Acids of Vegetarians and Omnivores
Bunešová, V., Joch, M., Musilová, Š., & Rada, V. (2017) · Scientia Agriculturae Bohemica · doi:10.1515/sab-2017-0007 · Cited by 9
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Impact of Nutrition on the Gut Microbiota
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Diet-Induced Alterations in Gut Microbiota Composition and Function
Rinninella, E., Cintoni, M., Raoul, P. C., Ianiro, G., Laterza, L., Ponziani, F. R., Pulcini, G., Gasbarrini, A., & Mele, M. C. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-819265-8.00035-8 · Cited by 9
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“Additionally, vegetarian and vegan diets appear to be more effective in managing SIBO [65].”
Background

Authors: Zimmer, J., Lange, B., Frick, J.-S., Sauer, H., Zimmermann, K., Schwiertz, A., Rusch, K., Klosterhalfen, S., & Enck, P.
Affiliations: Universitätsklinikum Tübingen (DE)
Herford Hospital (DE)
Institut für Mikroökologie (DE)
Corresponding author: Enck, P
ORCID: Lange, B
Frick, J-S
Schwiertz, A
Enck, P
Venue: European Journal of Clinical Nutrition
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2011-08-03
Volume: 66
Issue: 1
Pages: 53-60
ISSN: 0954-3007 (ISSN-L)
1476-5640
DOI: 10.1038/ejcn.2011.141
OpenAlex: W2152289100
Cited by: 465
References: 31
Citations by year: 2026: 11 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 35 · 2021: 48 · 2020: 52 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 45 · 2017: 48 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 27 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 5
FWCI: 5.82
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
hal.science
Licence: other-oa
www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
www.springer.com/tdm (vor)
Locations: European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
HAL (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Trinity's Access to Research Output (TARA) (Trinity College Dublin) (submittedVersion)
Funders: Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen
Topics: Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Probiotics and Fermented Foods
Keywords: vegan diet, vegetarian diet, gut microbiota, fecal microbiota, diet and microbiome, Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, Escherichia coli, Enterobacteriaceae, fecal pH, anaerobic bacteria, omnivorous diet
MeSH terms: Adult, Aged, Bacteria, Colon, Feces, Female, Humans, Hydrogen-Ion Concentration, Male, Middle Aged, Diet, Vegetarian, Colony Count, Microbial, Case-Control Studies, Metagenome

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A vegan or vegetarian diet substantially alters the human colonic faecal microbiota

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