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A vegan or vegetarian diet substantially alters the human colonic faecal microbiota
Open accessAbstract
Background/objectives Consisting of ≈10(14) microbial cells, the intestinal microbiota represents the largest and the most complex microbial community inhabiting the human body. However, the influence of regular diets on the microbiota is widely unknown.Subjects/methods We examined faecal samples of vegetarians (n=144), vegans (n=105) and an equal number of control subjects consuming ordinary omnivorous diet who were matched for age and gender. We used classical bacteriological isolation, identification and enumeration of the main anaerobic and aerobic bacterial genera and computed absolute and relative numbers that were compared between groups.Results Total counts of Bacteroides spp., Bifidobacterium spp., Escherichia coli and Enterobacteriaceae spp. were significantly lower (P=0.001, P=0.002, P=0.006 and P=0.008, respectively) in vegan samples than in controls, whereas others (E. coli biovars, Klebsiella spp., Enterobacter spp., other Enterobacteriaceae, Enterococcus spp., Lactobacillus spp., Citrobacter spp. and Clostridium spp.) were not. Subjects on a vegetarian diet ranked between vegans and controls. The total microbial count did not differ between the groups. In addition, subjects on a vegan or vegetarian diet showed significantly (P=0.0001) lower stool pH than did controls, and stool pH and counts of E. coli and Enterobacteriaceae were significantly correlated across all subgroups.Conclusions Maintaining a strict vegan or vegetarian diet results in a significant shift in the microbiota while total cell numbers remain unaltered.
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“While the amounts of Bacteroides and Firmicutes associated with vegan, vegetarian and omnivore diets from these studies and others [137, 138] are conflicting, it can be concluded that eating vegetables, fiber and/or resistant starch along with animal protein seems to diminish the negative effects of the potentially harmful byproducts from amino acids fermented by the gut microbiota.”
From Exercise-induced stress behavior, gut-microbiota-brain axis and diet: a systematic review for athletes (2016) · cites this paper as [137]
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“While the amounts of Bacteroides and Firmicutes associated with vegan, vegetarian and omnivore diets from these studies and others [137, 138] are conflicting, it can be concluded that eating vegetables, fiber and/or resistant starch along”
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BackgroundInfluentialIntestinal Microbiota Influences Non-intestinal Related Autoimmune Diseases
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“Also, a significant reduction for the loads for Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) was observed for the dietary groups ovo-lacto vegetarian and vegan, which may be due to the absence or low intake of some food such as cheese and yogurt (Zimmer et al., 2012).”
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InfluentialIntestinal Microbiota and Celiac Disease: Cause, Consequence or Co-Evolution?
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“,(18) that long-term diets might indeed affect the microbiota.(23) Another study compared the fecal microbiota of vegetarian and omnivorous young women in southern India.”
BackgroundInfluentialWarinner, C., Speller, C., Collins, M. J., & Lewis, C. M. (2015) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.10.016 · Cited by 178
“…of bile-tolerant organisms (e.g., Bacteroides) and/or plant polysaccharide metabolizers (e.g., Prevotella) have been observed among individuals consuming vegan, vegetarian, and ‘omnivorous’ diets (Zimmer et al., 2012), as well as between rural and urban populations (Yatsunenko et al., 2012).”
The gut microbiota of centenarians: Signatures of longevity in the gut microbiota profile
Biagi, E., Rampelli, S., Turroni, S., Quercia, S., Candela, M., & Brigidi, P. (2017) · Mechanisms of Ageing and Development · doi:10.1016/j.mad.2016.12.013 · Cited by 166
Association between the gut microbiota and diet: Fetal life, early childhood, and further life
Kashtanova, D. A., Popenko, A., Ткачева, О. Н., Tyakht, A., Alexeev, D. G., & Boytsov, S. A. (2016) · Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.nut.2015.12.037 · Cited by 176
Linking dietary patterns with gut microbial composition and function
Sheflin, A. M., Melby, C. L., Carbonero, F., & Weir, T. L. (2017) · Gut Microbes · doi:10.1080/19490976.2016.1270809 · Cited by 162
“For example, in a comparative study of vegans, lacto-ovo vegetarians, and omnivores, Zimmer et al.20 used culture-based methods and found lower counts of Bacteroides spp., Bifodobacterium spp, E. coli, and Enterobacteriaceae (P D 0.001, P D 0.002, P D 0.006 and P D 0.008, respectively) in vegans compared with the non-…”
ResultInfluentialGut Microbiota in Colorectal Cancer: Biological Role and Therapeutic Opportunities
Pandey, H., Tang, D. W. T., Wong, S. H., & Lal, D. (2023) · Cancers · doi:10.3390/cancers15030866 · Cited by 171
Lin, R., Piao, M., & Song, Y. (2019) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2019.01092 · Cited by 166
“stated that strict vegan or vegetarian diets significantly decrease Bacteroides, Enterobacteriaceae, and Bifidobacterium populations (Zimmer et al., 2012).”
BackgroundChu, F., Shi, M., Lang, Y., Shen, D., Jin, T., Zhu, J., & Cui, L. (2018) · Mediators of Inflammation · doi:10.1155/2018/8168717 · Cited by 164
Jefferson, A., & Adolphus, K. (2019) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2019.00033 · Cited by 149
Diet, Microbiota, and Metabolic Health: Trade-Off Between Saccharolytic and Proteolytic Fermentation
Korpela, K. (2018) · Annual Review of Food Science and Technology · doi:10.1146/annurev-food-030117-012830 · Cited by 161
“The overall fermentation and organic acid production slow down along the length of the colon, and the pH increases, allowing the acid-sensitive Bacteroides and Proteobacteria to increase in abundance (Duncan et al. 2009, Walker et al. 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialCharoensiddhi, S., Conlon, M. A., Franco, C. M. M., & Zhang, W. Y. (2017) · Trends in Food Science & Technology · doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2017.10.002 · Cited by 158
Intestinal Microbiota as a Contributor to Chronic Inflammation and Its Potential Modifications
Potrykus, M., Czaja-Stolc, S., Stankiewicz, M., Kaska, Ł., & Małgorzewicz, S. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13113839 · Cited by 152
“In people on a plant-based diet, the amounts of Bifidobacteria, Escherichia coli, and Enterobacteria were lower than in omnivores [52,53].”
BackgroundCorrelation of diet, microbiota and metabolite networks in inflammatory bowel disease
Yi, W., Gan, H. Y., Li, X., Huang, Y., Li, Z. C., Deng, H., Chen, S. Z., Zhou, Y. J., Wang, L. S., Han, Y. P., et al. (2019) · Journal of Digestive Diseases · doi:10.1111/1751-2980.12795 · Cited by 148
“Compared with short-term changes, long-term dietary patterns affect more significantly the ratios of Firmicutes, Bacteroides, and Prevotella in the gut;(7) while a strict vegan or vegetarian diet is associated with an obvious decrease in the abundance of Enterobacteriaceae, Bacteroides, and Bifidobacterium species.(8)…”
BackgroundModulation of Gut Microbiota in the Management of Metabolic Disorders: The Prospects and Challenges
Erejuwa, O. O., Sulaiman, S. A., & Wahab, M. S. A. (2014) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms15034158 · Cited by 139
“The type of diet (whether vegetarian diet or Western diet) may alter the gut microbiota composition [116].”
BackgroundHabitual Dietary Intake Is Associated with Stool Microbiota Composition in Monozygotic Twins
Simões, C., Maukonen, J., Kaprio, J. A., Rissanen, A., Pietiläinen, K. H., & Saarela, M. (2013) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.3945/jn.112.166322 · Cited by 152
“, vegetarians or vegans versus omnivores (9,10)] or from geographically distinct areas (11,12) have been characterized.”
BackgroundDiet, the intestinal microbiota, and immune health in aging
Clements, S. J., & Carding, S. R. (2016) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2016.1211086 · Cited by 163
“One comparative study showed a significant reduction in Enterobacteriaceae in vegans compared with omnivorous control subjects (Zimmer et al., 2012).”
The Second Brain: Is the Gut Microbiota a Link Between Obesity and Central Nervous System Disorders?
Ochoa‐Repáraz, J., & Kasper, L. H. (2016) · Current Obesity Reports · doi:10.1007/s13679-016-0191-1 · Cited by 141
Peng, Y., Yan, Y., Wan, P., Dong, W., Huang, K., Ran, L., Mi, J., Lu, L., Zeng, X., & Cao, Y. (2019) · Food Research International · doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2019.108952 · Cited by 131
de León-Rodríguez, M. D. C. P., Guyot, J., & Laurent-Babot, C. (2018) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2018.1506734 · Cited by 138
“In addition to dietary factors, TJ and immune dysregulation and a potential microbiota disequilibrium, genetic, environmental and socioeconomic factors may also influence the development of IBD and are reviewed elsewhere (Cho 2008; Khor, Gardet, and Xavier 2011; Liu and Stappenbeck 2016; Ng et al. 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialVegetable-Based Diets for Chronic Kidney Disease? It Is Time to Reconsider
Cases, A., Cigarrán, S., Mas, S., & González‐Parra, E. (2019) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11061263 · Cited by 130
“In contrast, in vegan or vegetarian patients there is a reduced abundance of pathobionts and a greater abundance of symbionts [25].”
BackgroundFrame, L. A., Costa, E., & Jackson, S. A. (2019) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuz106 · Cited by 129
The influence of antibiotics and dietary components on gut microbiota
Dudek-Wicher, R. K., Junka, A., & Bartoszewicz, M. (2018) · Gastroenterology Review · doi:10.5114/pg.2018.76005 · Cited by 131
A model for the role of gut bacteria in the development of autoimmunity for type 1 diabetes
Davis‐Richardson, A. G., & Triplett, E. W. (2015) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-015-3614-8 · Cited by 132
Reischer, G. H., Ebdon, J., Bauer, J. M., Schuster, N., Ahmed, W., Åström, J., Blanch, A. R., Blöschl, G., Byamukama, D., Coakley, T., et al. (2013) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es304367t · Cited by 124
Nutrition and Genetics in NAFLD: The Perfect Binomium
Meroni, M., Longo, M., Rustichelli, A., & Dongiovanni, P. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms21082986 · Cited by 125
“Indeed, fecal samples of vegan and vegetarian individuals showed a significant decrease in Bidifobacterium and Bacteroides species, as well as Africans fed a high-carbohydrate vegetarian diet compared to English subjects assuming a mixed Western diet [155,156].”
BackgroundDismicrobism in inflammatory bowel disease and colorectal cancer: Changes in response of colocytes
Tomasello, G. (2014) · World Journal of Gastroenterology · doi:10.3748/wjg.v20.i48.18121 · Cited by 126
Ijssennagger, N., Derrien, M., van Doorn, G. M., Rijnierse, A., van den Bogert, B., Müller, M. M., Dekker, J. P., Kleerebezem, M., & van der Meer, R. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049868 · Cited by 124
Zheng, J., Hoffman, K. L., Chen, J., Shivappa, N., Sood, A., Browman, G. J., Dirba, D. D., Hanash, S., Wei, P., Hébert, J. R., et al. (2020) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114520001853 · Cited by 122
Campmans-Kuijpers, M. J. E., & Dijkstra, G. D. H. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13041067 · Cited by 124
“The faecal microbiota of vegetarians and vegans showed lower abundance of Bifidobacteria and Bacteroides species than omnivores living on the same continent [39].”
BackgroundDiet Effects in Gut Microbiome and Obesity
Chen, J., He, X., & Huang, J. (2014) · Journal of Food Science · doi:10.1111/1750-3841.12397 · Cited by 121
Pathogenesis of Crohn's disease
Boyapati, R. K., Satsangi, J. J., & Ho, G. (2015) · F1000Prime Reports · doi:10.12703/p7-44 · Cited by 117
Spooren, C. E. G. M., Pierik, M. J., Zeegers, M. P., Feskens, E. J. M., Masclee, A., & Jonkers, D. M. A. E. (2013) · Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1111/apt.12501 · Cited by 110
Differential peripheral immune signatures elicited by vegan versus ketogenic diets in humans
Link, V. M., Subramanian, P., Cheung, F., Han, K. L., Stacy, A., Chi, L., Sellers, B. A., Koroleva, G., Courville, A. B., Mistry, S., et al. (2024) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-023-02761-2 · Cited by 118
Ferrocino, I., Di Cagno, R., De Angelis, M., Turroni, S., Vannini, L., Bancalari, E., Rantsiou, K., Cardinali, G., Neviani, E., & Cocolin, L. (2015) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0128669 · Cited by 107
“However, in a recent study it has been reported that there was no significant difference for Bifidobacterium between the three diets [35].”
BackgroundResultHerstad, K. M. V., Gajardo, K., Bakke, A. M., Moe, L., Ludvigsen, J., Rudi, K., Rud, I., Sekelja, M., & Skancke, E. (2017) · BMC Veterinary Research · doi:10.1186/s12917-017-1073-9 · Cited by 113
“Especially the fermentation of non-digestible carbohydrates by the colonic bacteria results in the formation of short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), mainly acetate, propionate and butyrate, and a lowering of the colonic pH [11, 15].”
BackgroundThe Role of Microbiome in Brain Development and Neurodegenerative Diseases
Nandwana, V., Nandwana, N. K., Das, Y., Saito, M., Panda, T., Das, S., Almaguel, F. A., Hosmane, N. S., & Das, B. C. (2022) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules27113402 · Cited by 117
Díez-Sainz, E., Milagro, F. I., Riezu‐Boj, J. I., & Lorente‐Cebrián, S. (2021) · Journal of Physiology and Biochemistry · doi:10.1007/s13105-021-00837-6 · Cited by 105
“Therefore, promotion of a specific gut microbiota composition profile has been established for a wide range of diets, such as vegan/vegetarian diet, gluten-free diet, Western diet, or Mediterranean diet, which have an impact on metabolism and gut barrier and immune functions [2, 51, 110, 135].”
BackgroundCommunal living: glycan utilization by the human gut microbiota
Briggs, J. A., Grondin, J. M., & Brumer, H. (2020) · Environmental Microbiology · doi:10.1111/1462-2920.15317 · Cited by 107
“Interestingly, those consuming entirely plant-based (vegan) diets were found to have substantially lower populations of Bifidobacterium species in their faecal microbiota (Zimmer et al., 2012), hinting at the hierarchal consumption of polysaccharides within the gut ecosystem.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Zimmer, J., Lange, B., Frick, J.-S., Sauer, H., Zimmermann, K., Schwiertz, A., Rusch, K., Klosterhalfen, S., & Enck, P.
- Affiliations
- Universitätsklinikum Tübingen (DE)
- Herford Hospital (DE)
- Institut für Mikroökologie (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Enck, P
- Venue
- European Journal of Clinical Nutrition
- Published
- 2011-08-03
- Volume
- 66
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 53-60
- ISSN
- 0954-3007 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-5640
- OpenAlex
- W2152289100
- Cited by
- 465
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 35 · 2021: 48 · 2020: 52 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 45 · 2017: 48 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 27 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 5.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hal.science
- Licence
- Locations
- European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Trinity's Access to Research Output (TARA) (Trinity College Dublin) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Probiotics and Fermented Foods
- Keywords
- vegan diet, vegetarian diet, gut microbiota, fecal microbiota, diet and microbiome, Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, Escherichia coli, Enterobacteriaceae, fecal pH, anaerobic bacteria, omnivorous diet
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Bacteria, Colon, Feces, Female, Humans, Hydrogen-Ion Concentration, Male, Middle Aged, Diet, Vegetarian, Colony Count, Microbial, Case-Control Studies, Metagenome
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