All-photonic quantum repeaters
Open accessAbstract
Quantum communication holds promise for unconditionally secure transmission of secret messages and faithful transfer of unknown quantum states. Photons appear to be the medium of choice for quantum communication. Owing to photon losses, robust quantum communication over long lossy channels requires quantum repeaters. It is widely believed that a necessary and highly demanding requirement for quantum repeaters is the existence of matter quantum memories. Here we show that such a requirement is, in fact, unnecessary by introducing the concept of all-photonic quantum repeaters based on flying qubits. In particular, we present a protocol based on photonic cluster-state machine guns and a loss-tolerant measurement equipped with local high-speed active feedforwards. We show that, with such all-photonic quantum repeaters, the communication efficiency scales polynomially with the channel distance. Our result paves a new route towards quantum repeaters with efficient single-photon sources rather than matter quantum memories.
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A modular design could be of particular advantage for all-optical quantum networks and delegated quantum computations.
“A modular design could be of particular advantage for all-optical quantum networks 7 and delegated quantum computations.28”
From Integrated-optics heralded controlled-NOT gate for polarization-encoded qubits (2018) · cites this paper as [7]
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Generation and Processing of Complex Photon States With Quantum Frequency Combs
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“Further protocols rely on, e.g., quantum repeaters [58], which build on the generation and recurrent recreation of an interconnected entanglement network between multiple parties of a so-called repeater graph state (e.g., cluster state) in order to transfer a quantum key.”
Singh, A., Dev, K., Šiljak, H., Joshi, H. D., & Magarini, M. (2021) · IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials · doi:10.1109/comst.2021.3109944 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
“Therefore, in the third generation of quantum repeaters, this two-way signalling is replaced by one-way signalling using certain loss-tolerant codes [19], [18], [20], [157].”
BackgroundFeasibility of satellite-to-ground continuous-variable quantum key distribution
Dequal, D., Vidarte, L. T., Rodriguez, V. R., Vallone, G., Villoresi, P., Leverrier, A., & Diamanti, E. (2021) · npj Quantum Information · doi:10.1038/s41534-020-00336-4 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
“(11), our expression for the secret key rate in the presence of fading becomes:”
BackgroundInfluentialFrequency multiplexing for quasi-deterministic heralded single-photon sources
Joshi, C., Farsi, A., Clemmen, S., Ramelow, S., & Gaeta, A. L. (2018) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-018-03254-4 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
“The applications of such low-loss high repetition rate frequency multiplexing go beyond single-photon sources and can prove to be highly advantageous for all-photonic quantum repeaters that rely on active feed-forward heralding signals [50].”
BackgroundCavity quantum electrodynamics with color centers in diamond
Janitz, E., Bhaskar, M. K., & Childress, L. (2020) · Optica · doi:10.1364/optica.398628 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Rozpędek, F., Yehia, R., Goodenough, K., Ruf, M., Humphreys, P. C., Hanson, R., Wehner, S., & Elkouss, D. (2019) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.99.052330 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Rate-distance tradeoff and resource costs for all-optical quantum repeaters
Pant, M., Krovi, H., Englund, D. R., & Guha, S. (2017) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.95.012304 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Rate-loss analysis of an efficient quantum repeater architecture
Guha, S., Krovi, H., Fuchs, C. A., Dutton, Z., Slater, J. A., Simon, C., & Tittel, W. (2015) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.92.022357 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Deterministic Generation of All-Photonic Quantum Repeaters from Solid-State Emitters
Buterakos, D., Barnes, E., & Economou, S. E. (2017) · Physical Review X · doi:10.1103/physrevx.7.041023 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
“[16]: (a) Top: Emitter B is connected to ancilla A with a CZ gate and pumped twice, creating photons 1 and 2.”
BackgroundInfluentialSequential generation of linear cluster states from a single photon emitter
Istrati, D., Pilnyak, Y., Loredo, J. C., Antón, C., Somaschi, N., Hilaire, P., Ollivier, H., Esmann, M., Cohen, L., Vidro, L., et al. (2020) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19341-4 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Drone-based entanglement distribution towards mobile quantum networks
Liu, H., Tian, X.-H., Gu, C., Fan, P., Ni, X., Yang, R., Zhang, J.-N., Hu, M., Guo, J. W., Cao, X., et al. (2020) · National Science Review · doi:10.1093/nsr/nwz227 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Deterministic generation of indistinguishable photons in a cluster state
Cogan, D., Su, Z.-E., Kenneth, O., & Gershoni, D. (2023) · Nature Photonics · doi:10.1038/s41566-022-01152-2 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Optical-Relayed Entanglement Distribution Using Drones as Mobile Nodes
Liu, H., Tian, X.-H., Gu, C., Fan, P., Ni, X., Yang, R., Zhang, J.-N., Hu, M., Guo, J. W., Cao, X., et al. (2021) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.126.020503 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
High-rate entanglement between a semiconductor spin and indistinguishable photons
Coste, N., Fioretto, D., Belabas, N., Wein, S. C., Hilaire, P., Frantzeskakis, R., Gundín, M., Goes, B. O., Somaschi, N., Morassi, M., et al. (2023) · Nature Photonics · doi:10.1038/s41566-023-01186-0 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
“02, (2) the single-photon tomography set-up of transmission ηT = 0.”
BackgroundMethodMachine Learning for Long-Distance Quantum Communication
Wallnöfer, J., Melnikov, A. A., Dür, W., & Briegel, H. J. (2020) · PRX Quantum · doi:10.1103/prxquantum.1.010301 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
SimulaQron—a simulator for developing quantum internet software
Dahlberg, A., & Wehner, S. (2018) · Quantum Science and Technology · doi:10.1088/2058-9565/aad56e · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Entanglement over global distances via quantum repeaters with satellite links
Boone, K., Bourgoin, J.-P., Meyer-Scott, E., Heshami, K., Jennewein, T. D., & Simon, C. (2015) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.91.052325 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Telecom-Wavelength Quantum Repeater Node Based on a Trapped-Ion Processor
Krutyanskiy, V. L., Canteri, M., Meraner, M., Bate, J., Krcmarsky, V., Schupp, J., Sangouard, N., & Lanyon, B. P. (2023) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.130.213601 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Meyer-Scott, E., Montaut, N., Tiedau, J., Sansoni, L., Herrmann, H., Bartley, T. J., & Silberhorn, C. (2017) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.95.061803 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Sequential generation of linear cluster states from a single photon emitter
Istrati, D., Pilnyak, Y., Loredo, J. C., Antón, C., Somaschi, N., Hilaire, P., Ollivier, H., Esmann, M., Cohen, L., Vidro, L., et al. (2020) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Leung, N., Lu, Y., Chakram, S., Naik, R., Earnest, N., Ma, R., Jacobs, K. A., Cleland, A. N., & Schuster, D. (2019) · npj Quantum Information · doi:10.1038/s41534-019-0128-0 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Schimpf, C., Reindl, M., Basset, F. B., Jöns, K. D., Trotta, R., & Rastelli, A. (2021) · Applied Physics Letters · doi:10.1063/5.0038729 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Integrated-optics heralded controlled-NOT gate for polarization-encoded qubits
Zeuner, J., Sharma, A. N., Tillmann, M., Heilmann, R., Gräfe, M., Moqanaki, A., Szameit, A., & Walther, P. (2018) · npj Quantum Information · doi:10.1038/s41534-018-0068-0 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
“A modular design could be of particular advantage for all-optical quantum networks [7] and delegated quantum computations [28].”
BackgroundSciara, S., Roztocki, P., Fischer, B., Reimer, C., Cortés, L. R., Munro, W. J., Moss, D., Cino, A. C., Caspani, L., Kues, M., et al. (2021) · Nanophotonics · doi:10.1515/nanoph-2021-0510 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Uppu, R., Eriksen, H. T., Thyrrestrup, H., Uğurlu, A. D., Wang, Y., Scholz, S., Wieck, A. D., Ludwig, A., Löbl, M. C., Warburton, R. J., et al. (2020) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17603-9 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“The Y-splitter together with the photonic crystal selectively prepares the mode of the excitation pulse (Supplementary Notes 2 and 3).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialNonlinear integrated quantum electro-optic circuits
Luo, K.-H., Brauner, S., Eigner, C., Sharapova, P. R., Ricken, R., Meier, T., Herrmann, H., & Silberhorn, C. (2019) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aat1451 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“As one of the most fundamental nonclassical experiments in quantum optics, it lies at the heart of many quantum logic operations (23), for example, boson sampling (6, 7); Bell-state measurement for quantum repeaters (24); and the Knill, Laflamme, and Milburn protocol for quantum computing (25).”
BackgroundSolid‐State Single‐Photon Sources: Recent Advances for Novel Quantum Materials
Esmann, M., Wein, S. C., & Antón, C. (2024) · Advanced Functional Materials · doi:10.1002/adfm.202315936 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“For example, a memory can be used to deterministically generate entangled photonic states [19,20] to implement measurement-based quantum computing [21], fusion-based quantum computing [22], or all-photonic quantum repeaters [23].”
BackgroundPhotonic Quantum Networks formed from NV− centers
Nemoto, K., Trupke, M., Devitt, S. J., Scharfenberger, B., Buczak, K., Schmiedmayer, J., & Munro, W. J. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep26284 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Satellite-based links for quantum key distribution: beam effects and weather dependence
Liorni, C., Kampermann, H., & Bruß, D. (2019) · New Journal of Physics · doi:10.1088/1367-2630/ab41a2 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“Several schemes for the realization of quantum repeaters have been proposed in recent years, that could allow to bridge long distances and naturally be implemented inside a quantum communication network [3, 4, 5, 6, 7].”
BackgroundInterface between Trapped-Ion Qubits and Traveling Photons with Close-to-Optimal Efficiency
Schupp, J., Krcmarsky, V., Krutyanskiy, V., Meraner, M., Northup, T. E., & Lanyon, B. P. (2021) · PRX Quantum · doi:10.1103/prxquantum.2.020331 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Ultrafast Long-Distance Quantum Communication with Static Linear Optics
Ewert, F., Bergmann, M., & van Loock, P. (2016) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.117.210501 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Quantum Cryptography: Key Distribution and Beyond
Akshata Shenoy, H., Pathak, A., & Radhakrishna, S. (2017) · Quanta · doi:10.12743/quanta.v6i1.57 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Advances in Silicon Quantum Photonics
Adcock, J. C., Bao, J., Chi, Y., Chen, X., Bacco, D., Gong, Q., Oxenløwe, L. K., Wang, J., & Ding, Y. (2020) · IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics · doi:10.1109/jstqe.2020.3025737 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“All-photonic repeater schemes use graph states [47]—recently demonstrated in silicon photonics [18]—in a scheme that has been illustrated in bulk optics [304].”
BackgroundTowards the industrialisation of quantum key distribution in communication networks: A short survey
Liu, R., Rozenman, G. G., Kundu, N. K., Chandra, D., & De, D. (2022) · IET Quantum Communication · doi:10.1049/qtc2.12044 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Yu, X., Liu, Y., Zou, X., Cao, Y., Zhao, Y., Nag, A., & Zhang, J. (2022) · Journal of Lightwave Technology · doi:10.1109/jlt.2022.3153992 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Robust quantum network architectures and topologies for entanglement distribution
Das, S., Khatri, S., & Dowling, J. P. (2018) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.97.012335 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Tools for quantum network design
Azuma, K., Bäuml, S., Coopmans, T. J., Elkouss, D., & Li, B. (2021) · AVS Quantum Science · doi:10.1116/5.0024062 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Self-citationScalable distributed gate-model quantum computers
Gyöngyösi, L., & Imre, S. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-76728-5 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Fundamental rate-loss trade-off for the quantum internet
Azuma, K., Mizutani, A., & Lo, H. (2016) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms13523 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“To show this, as an example, here we apply our bound to an exponential scaling problem 35,41 of the DLCZ-type quantum repeater protocols 18,23,24,30 with time-dependent decay of matter quantum memories.”
Self-citationQuantum Networks with Deterministic Spin–Photon Interfaces
Borregaard, J., Sørensen, A. S., & Lodahl, P. (2019) · Advanced Quantum Technologies · doi:10.1002/qute.201800091 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Universal Limitations on Quantum Key Distribution over a Network
Das, S., Bäuml, S., Winczewski, M., & Horodecki, K. (2021) · Physical Review X · doi:10.1103/physrevx.11.041016 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Secure Quantum Communication Technologies and Systems: From Labs to Markets
Cavaliere, F., Prati, E., Potì, L., Muhammad, I., & Catuogno, T. (2020) · Quantum Reports · doi:10.3390/quantum2010007 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
All-optical long-distance quantum communication with Gottesman-Kitaev-Preskill qubits
Fukui, K., Alexander, R. N., & van Loock, P. (2021) · Physical Review Research · doi:10.1103/physrevresearch.3.033118 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“We show that our protocols can achieve a higher secure key rate compared with similar quantum repeater protocols based on photonic qubits [16, 18].”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialA Quantum Internet Architecture
Meter, R. V., Satoh, R., Benchasattabuse, N., Teramoto, K., Matsuo, T., Hajdušek, M., Satoh, T., Nagayama, S., & Suzuki, S. (2022) · IEEE International Conference on Quantum Computing and Engineering (QCE) · doi:10.1109/qce53715.2022.00055 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“do not require quantum memories [55], [56].”
BackgroundQUARC: Quantum Research Cubesat—A Constellation for Quantum Communication
Mazzarella, L., Lowe, C., Lowndes, D., Joshi, S. K., Greenland, S., McNeil, D., Mercury, C., Macdonald, M., Rarity, J., & Oi, D. K. L. (2020) · Cryptography · doi:10.3390/cryptography4010007 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“The UL configuration requires a less complicated payload comprising single photon detectors but would also require a larger telescope compared to DL [37,48].”
BackgroundPu, Y., Zhang, S., Wu, Y., Jiang, N., Chang, W., Li, C., & Duan, L.-M. (2021) · Nature Photonics · doi:10.1038/s41566-021-00764-4 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Bell-state measurement exceeding 50% success probability with linear optics
Bayerbach, M. J., D’Aurelio, S. E., van Loock, P., & Barz, S. (2023) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adf4080 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
“The considerable impact of the enhanced BSM on the state generation, and thus also on the total rates, of an all-photonic quantum repeater based on photonic cluster states ( 27 ), leading to an overhead reduction of several orders of magnitude, was also found in ( 29 ).”
Frequency-Domain Quantum Interference with Correlated Photons from an Integrated Microresonator
Joshi, C., Farsi, A., Dutt, A., Kim, B. Y., Ji, X., Zhao, Y., Bishop, A. M., Lipson, M., & Gaeta, A. L. (2020) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.124.143601 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
“Novel approaches for allphotonic quantum repeaters rely on a combination of efficient single-photon sources, linear operations with beam splitters and measurement-based fusion gates to generate entangled multiphoton GHZ and cluster states [8,9].”
BackgroundAll-photonic intercity quantum key distribution
Azuma, K., Tamaki, K., & Munro, W. J. (2015) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms10171 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Self-citationEfficient generation and characterization of spectrally factorable biphotons
Chen, C., Bo, C., Niu, M. Y., Xu, F., Zhang, Z., Shapiro, J. H., & Wong, F. N. C. (2017) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.25.007300 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Development of Quantum Interconnects (QuICs) for Next-Generation Information Technologies
Awschalom, D., Berggren, K. K., Bernien, H., Bhave, S. A., Carr, L. D., Davids, P., Economou, S. E., Englund, D. R., Faraon, A., Fejer, M. M., et al. (2021) · DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) · doi:10.6082/33e5f-d1j97 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Sequential generation of multiphoton entanglement with a Rydberg superatom
Yang, C.-W., Yu, Y. H., Li, J., Jing, B., Bao, X., & Pan, J.-W. (2022) · Nature Photonics · doi:10.1038/s41566-022-01054-3 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Quantum repeaters based on concatenated bosonic and discrete-variable quantum codes
Rozpędek, F., Noh, K., Xu, Q., Guha, S., & Jiang, L. (2021) · npj Quantum Information · doi:10.1038/s41534-021-00438-7 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“Such an implementation would be similar in spirit to the all-photonic repeaters [13, 14].”
BackgroundPhotostable Molecules on Chip: Integrated Sources of Nonclassical Light
Lombardi, P., Ovvyan, A. P., Pazzagli, S., Mazzamuto, G., Kewes, G., Neitzke, O., Gruhler, N., Benson, O. J., Pernice, W. H. P., Cataliotti, F. S., et al. (2017) · ACS Photonics · doi:10.1021/acsphotonics.7b00521 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Quantum Teleportation of Shared Quantum Secret
Lee, S. M., Lee, S.-W., Jeong, H., & Park, H. S. (2020) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.124.060501 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“Finally, our Bell-state analysis would be applicable to other recently advanced quantum communication protocols [4, 29, 32].”
MethodHigh-fidelity photonic quantum logic gate based on near-optimal Rydberg single-photon source
Shi, S., Xu, B., Zhang, K., Ye, G.-S., Xiang, D.-S., Liu, Y., Wang, J., Su, D., & Li, L. (2022) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-022-32083-9 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
High-spectral-purity photon generation from a dual-interferometer-coupled silicon microring
Liu, Y., Wu, C., Gu, X., Kong, Y., Yu, X., Ge, R., Cai, X., Qiang, X., Wu, J., Yang, X., et al. (2019) · Optics Letters · doi:10.1364/ol.45.000073 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Liorni, C., Kampermann, H., & Bruß, D. (2021) · New Journal of Physics · doi:10.1088/1367-2630/abfa63 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Measurement-based quantum communication
Zwerger, M. J., Briegel, H. J., & Dür, W. (2016) · Applied Physics B · doi:10.1007/s00340-015-6285-8 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Yang, J., Chen, Y., Rao, Z., Zheng, Z., Song, C., Chen, Y., Xiong, K., Chen, P.-X., Zhang, C., Wu, W., et al. (2024) · Light Science & Applications · doi:10.1038/s41377-024-01384-7 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Fundamental building block for all-optical scalable quantum networks
Lee, S.-W., Ralph, T. C., & Jeong, H. (2019) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.100.052303 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“Our protocol exhibits superiority over not only the standard quantum repeater model [22–27] but also the recent advanced repeater protocols without necessitating long-lived quantum memories [31, 33] with respect to the communication rate and resource cost.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialParameter regimes for a single sequential quantum repeater
Rozpędek, F., Goodenough, K., Ribeiro, J., Kalb, N., Vivoli, V. C., Reiserer, A., Hanson, R., Wehner, S., & Elkouss, D. (2018) · Quantum Science and Technology · doi:10.1088/2058-9565/aab31b · Cited by 75 · see citing works
- Authors
- Azuma, K., Tamaki, K., & Lo, H.-K.
- Affiliations
- NTT (Japan) (JP)
- University of Toronto (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Azuma, Koji
- Venue
- Nature Communications
- Published
- 2015-04-15
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 6787-6787
- ISSN
- 2041-1723 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4410623
- OpenAlex
- W2006376335
- Cited by
- 583
- References
- 55
- Citations by year
- 2026: 55 · 2025: 67 · 2024: 58 · 2023: 75 · 2022: 65 · 2021: 68 · 2020: 53 · 2019: 50 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 6
- FWCI
- 27.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Nature Communications (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (21102008)
- Iran Telecommunication Research Center
- Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science
- National Institute of Information and Communications Technology
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Quantum Information and Cryptography
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Quantum optics and atomic interactions
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Quantum Computing Algorithms and Architecture
- Keywords
- quantum repeaters, flying qubits, photonic cluster states, machine guns, single-photon sources, quantum memory, long-distance quantum communication, photon loss, communication efficiency
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