The DOI matches its Crossref record; 166 of the 166 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Genetic variation, brain, and intelligence differences
Open accessAbstract
Individual differences in human intelligence, as assessed using cognitive test scores, have a well-replicated, hierarchical phenotypic covariance structure. They are substantially stable across the life course, and are predictive of educational, social, and health outcomes. From this solid phenotypic foundation and importance for life, comes an interest in the environmental, social, and genetic aetiologies of intelligence, and in the foundations of intelligence differences in brain structure and functioning. Here, we summarise and critique the last 10 years or so of molecular genetic (DNA-based) research on intelligence, including the discovery of genetic loci associated with intelligence, DNA-based heritability, and intelligence’s genetic correlations with other traits. We summarise new brain imaging-intelligence findings, including whole-brain associations and grey and white matter associations. We summarise regional brain imaging associations with intelligence and interpret these with respect to theoretical accounts. We address research that combines genetics and brain imaging in studying intelligence differences. There are new, though modest, associations in all these areas, and mechanistic accounts are lacking. We attempt to identify growing points that might contribute toward a more integrated ‘systems biology’ account of some of the between-individual differences in intelligence.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“This matters because intelligence, educational attainment, and other cognitive abilities are all highly heritable9,34.”
From The impact of digital media on children’s intelligence while controlling for genetic differences in cognition and socioeconomic background (2022) · cites this paper as [9]
In the citing paper
“Scores in measures of intelligence are highly predictive of a person’s future, including happiness, longevity, income, and educational achievement9.”
From The impact of digital media on children’s intelligence while controlling for genetic differences in cognition and socioeconomic background (2022) · cites this paper as [9]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Klitgaard, R. E., & Gardner, H. (1984) · Journal of Policy Analysis and Management · doi:10.2307/3324560 · Cited by 13,639
Diamond, A. (2013) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 · Cited by 13,268
"General Intelligence," Objectively Determined and Measured
Spearman, C. (1904) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1412107 · Cited by 6,207
Human Cognitive Abilities: A Survey of Factor-Analytic Studies
Carroll, J. B. (1993) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511571312 · Cited by 4,121 · cited 3×
“For example, John Carroll re-analysed correlation matrices of diverse cognitive tests from 400+ studies conducted in the 20th century [5].”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life.
Preston, S. H., Herrnstein, R. J., & Murray, C. A. (1995) · Population and Development Review · doi:10.2307/2137757 · Cited by 4,027
(1996) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-2458 · Cited by 3,746
Human cognitive abilities a survey of factor-analytic studies
Carroll, J. B. (2004) · Cited by 3,395
Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns.
Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T. J., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J., Halpern, D. F., Loehlin, J. C., Perloff, R., Sternberg, R. J., et al. (1996) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.51.2.77 · Cited by 2,913
The g factor: the science of mental ability
(1998) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.36-2443 · Cited by 2,763
23andMe Research Team, Lee, J. J., COGENT (Cognitive Genomics Consortium), Social Science Genetic Association Consortium, Wedow, R., Okbay, A., Kong, E., Maghzian, O., Zacher, M., Nguyen-Viet, T. A., et al. (2018) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41588-018-0147-3 · Cited by 2,470
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–137 of 137
Rodrigues, F. D. A. A. (2021) · Ciencia Latina Revista Científica Multidisciplinar · doi:10.37811/rcm.v5i6.1145
Donohoe, G. J., Corley, E., Fahey, L., Fitzgerald, J. C., Holleran, L., Walton, E., & Morris, D. W. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1699579/v1
Rodrigues, F. D. A. A. (2022) · RECISATEC - REVISTA CIENTÍFICA SAÚDE E TECNOLOGIA · doi:10.53612/recisatec.v2i12.232
Correlation of Blood Groups and Intelligence Quotient Levels among Medical Students
Afaq, E., Sajjad, M., Shoaib, N., Azhar, N., Siddiqui, A. S., Hussain, A., & Waseem, H. F. (2023) · National Journal of Health Sciences · doi:10.21089/njhs.81.0007
The Bell Curve at 30: A Closer Look at the Within- and Between-Group IQ Genetic EvidencePreprint
Joseph, J., & Richardson, K. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/jz7ku
Walsh, A. (2024) · Edward Elgar Publishing eBooks · doi:10.4337/9781035322879.00023
Implicações do envelhecimento humano para a inteligência: uma revisão integrativa
Rebêlo, F. L., dos Santos, C. V. M., da Silva, T. J. F., Araujo, D. D. S., da Silva, D. S., Silva, I. L. R. D. R., Cruz, K. D. T., da Silva, C. D., & Filho, J. G. D. A. (2024) · Brazilian Journal of Health Review · doi:10.34119/bjhrv7n3-457
Parente, F., Pedale, T., Rossi‐Espagnet, M. C., Longo, D., Napolitano, A., Gazzellini, S., Macrı̀, S., & Santangelo, V. (2024) · Brain Topography · doi:10.1007/s10548-024-01091-x · Cited by 2
Electrophysiological resting-state signatures link polygenic scores to general intelligence
Engler, R., Stammen, C., Arnau, S., Penate, J. S., Metzen, D., Digutsch, J., Gajewski, P. D., Getzmann, S., Fraenz, C., Reinders, J., et al. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1101/2025.01.17.633388
van Rijn, S., Kuiper, K. C., & Swaab, H. (2025) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A · doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.64021
Shared genomic architecture of the brain white matter structural connectome and intelligencePreprint
Dong, X., Huang, W., Chen, H., Zhang, Y., Liu, B., & Shu, N. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.04.09.647917
Zhang, Y., Gülöksüz, S., Stehouwer, C. D. A., van Greevenbroek, M. M. J., Köhler, S., Eussen, S. J. P. M., Bosma, H., van Boxtel, M. P. J., Schram, M. T., Linden, D. E. J., et al. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.06.16.25329671
Blas, L. D., & Osti, G. D. (2025) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence13080095
General mental ability (Spearman's g) in Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy
Struck, A. F., Garcia‐Ramos, C., Prabhakaran, V., Nair, V. A., Adluru, A., Almane, D. N., Adluru, N., Jones, J. E., & Hermann, B. P. (2025) · Epilepsia Open · doi:10.1002/epi4.70111 · Cited by 1
Albokai, H., & Alsubaihi, A. (2025) · Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi · doi:10.17066/tpdrd.1527723
Cerebral cortical structures linked to intelligencePreprint
Chou, C.-J., Fiecas, M. J. A., del Re, E. C., Vuoksimaa, E., & Chen, C. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.10.06.680808
Think Again About Aging and Longevity
Faria, M. C. (2025) · Lecture notes in bioengineering · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-77282-5_3
Artificial selection and designer babies
Herrera, R. J., & Garcia‐Bertrand, R. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-28919-4.00006-4
Intelligence, Education, and Society: Godfrey Thomson’s Public and Professional Lectures
Deary, I. J., Brett, C. E., Anthony, E., & Lawn, M. (2025) · Intelligence & Cognitive Abilities · doi:10.65550/001c.137806
Self-citationMohamed, A. Z., Qadi, A., Dogar, A., Salah, A., Hamkari, A., Alkalali, D., Begum, G., Paterson, H., Morjane, I., Hassanin, O., et al. (2026) · Scientific Data · doi:10.1038/s41597-025-06498-0
Heller, G., Flores, T. R., Carpena, M. X., Hallal, P. C., Domingues, M. R., & Bertoldi, A. D. (2026) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s000711452610628x · Cited by 1
Williams, C. M. (2022) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/4418ee9dz5bd3z43f7za4efz5ddac1baed0f
Quinones, J. F., Düzel, S., Drewelies, J., Gerstorf, D., Demuth, I., Lindenberger, U., & Kühn, S. (2026) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2026.124671
Dong, X., Huang, W., Chen, H., Zhang, Y., Liu, B., Zhang, D., Zhang, Z., Ma, G., & Shu, N. (2026) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-026-10131-0 · Cited by 1
Deary, I. J. (2026) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2026.102028
Self-citationNeuronaukowe podstawy inteligencji
Haier, R. J., Kabziński, P., & Mąka, S. (2026) · Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego eBooks · doi:10.18778/8331-892-9
Die Differentielle und Persönlichkeitspsychologie im Jahr 2025
Rauthmann, J. F., Armbruster, D., Asselmann, E., Berkessel, J. B., Bleidorn, W., Buecker, S., Gärtner, A., Leising, D., Luhmann, M., Phan, L. V., et al. (2026) · Psychologische Rundschau · doi:10.1026/0033-3042/a000737
Santangelo, A., Ohlei, O., Mareva, S., Brkić, D., Calm Team, Bertram, L., Holmes, J., Astle, D. E., & Baker, K. (2026) · European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-026-03086-4 · Cited by 1
Perfectionism in gifted and talented students: An umbrella reviewPreprint
Gómez-Pedraza, M. A., Rodríguez, N. G., Báez, A. L. M., & Sierra, M. D. L. D. V. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-10022175/v1
Invisible potentials: A neuroscientific framework for giftedness
Fernandes, F. R. (2026) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2026.101278
Bratsberg, B., Fjell, A. M., Røgeberg, O. J., & Walhovd, K. B. (2026) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2536089123
Tezuka, S. (2026) · Journal of Controversial Ideas · doi:10.63466/jci06010001
Stratified Equality of Opportunity in the German Education System: Evidence from the SOEP-G Data
Harjes, L. (2026) · KZfSS Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie · doi:10.1007/s11577-026-01089-2
The relationship between brain size and cognitive ability
Sreeja, B. N., & Kammar, M. R. (2026) · International Journal of Farm Sciences · doi:10.5958/2250-0499.2026.00023.x
Musicians, Memory, and General Cognitive Ability: A Commentary on Grassi et al. (2025)
Toffalini, E., & Feraco, T. (2026) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/25152459261452948
Chou, C.-J., Fiecas, M. J. A., del Re, E. C., Vuoksimaa, E., & Chen, C. (2026) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.70635
Gignac, G. E. (2026) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2026.102073
Metadata
- Authors
- Deary, I. J., Cox, S. R., & Hill, W. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Edinburgh (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Deary, Ian J.
- Venue
- Molecular Psychiatry
- Published
- 2021-02-02
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 335-353
- ISSN
- 1359-4184 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-5578
- PMC
- PMC8960418
- OpenAlex
- W3127205570
- Cited by
- 137
- References
- 158
- Citations by year
- 2026: 25 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 14
- FWCI
- 3.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Molecular Psychiatry (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Edinburgh Research Explorer (University of Edinburgh) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Age UK (Disconnected Mind)
- RCUK | Medical Research Council (MR/R024065/1)
- U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (1R01AG054628-01A1)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic Associations and Epidemiology
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Keywords
- intelligence, individual differences, genetic variation, heritability, genetic loci, brain structure, neuroimaging, grey matter, white matter, genetic correlation, systems biology, cognitive test scores
- MeSH terms
- Brain, Humans, Intelligence, Neuropsychological Tests, Genetic Variation, White Matter
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
