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A single-cell atlas of mouse brain macrophages reveals unique transcriptional identities shaped by ontogeny and tissue environment
Open accessAbstract
While the roles of parenchymal microglia in brain homeostasis and disease are fairly clear, other brain-resident myeloid cells remain less well understood. By dissecting border regions and combining single-cell RNA-sequencing with high-dimensional cytometry, bulk RNA-sequencing, fate-mapping and microscopy, we reveal the diversity of non-parenchymal brain macrophages. Border-associated macrophages (BAMs) residing in the dura mater, subdural meninges and choroid plexus consisted of distinct subsets with tissue-specific transcriptional signatures, and their cellular composition changed during postnatal development. BAMs exhibited a mixed ontogeny, and subsets displayed distinct self-renewal capacity following depletion and repopulation. Single-cell and fate-mapping analysis both suggested that there is a unique microglial subset residing on the apical surface of the choroid plexus epithelium. Finally, gene network analysis and conditional deletion revealed IRF8 as a master regulator that drives the maturation and diversity of brain macrophages. Our results provide a framework for understanding host-macrophage interactions in both the healthy and diseased brain.
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“Our consensus exAM signature does overlap with the dissociation signature in the study by Van Hove et al.[43] (19 of 25 genes in consensus exAM list; Supplementary Tables 4, 5 and 21a).”
From Dissection of artifactual and confounding glial signatures by single-cell sequencing of mouse and human brain (2022) · cites this paper as Van Hove et al.[43]
In the citing paper
“Consistent with the reports from other tissues in mice, we found that typical enzymatic digestion of mouse brain tissue induced a host of transcriptional alterations34,43,44,65.”
From Dissection of artifactual and confounding glial signatures by single-cell sequencing of mouse and human brain (2022) · cites this paper as [43]
In the citing paper
“However, emerging results from other tissues/cell types have begun to characterize dissociation artifacts following enzymatic digestion43–45,65,66.”
From Dissection of artifactual and confounding glial signatures by single-cell sequencing of mouse and human brain (2022) · cites this paper as [43]
In the citing paper
“No explicit statistical methods were used to predetermine sample sizes but our sample sizes exceed those reported in previous publications32,34,43.”
From Dissection of artifactual and confounding glial signatures by single-cell sequencing of mouse and human brain (2022) · cites this paper as [43]
In the citing paper
“This molecule likely also affects BAMs, as reported in the case of PLX3397 [317], placing an important caveat on the interpretation of data where PLX5622 is assumed to be purely microglia-specific.”
From Microglia and monocytes in inflammatory CNS disease: integrating phenotype and function (2022) · cites this paper as [317]
In the citing paper
“Although microglia represent a heterogeneous cell population [46], they still share several expression profiles with primitive and adult macrophages, including IBA1.”
From The Cuprizone Model: Dos and Do Nots (2020) · cites this paper as [46]
In the citing paper
“In the Aging Mouse Brain Single Cell Portal, Plcg2 expression is highest in microglia and brain macrophages, with lower levels in endothelial cells and oligodendrocyte precursor cells and minimal to no expression in neurons, astrocytes, and mature oligodendrocytes [30, 72–74].”
From PLCγ2 deficiency compromises systemic immune tolerance and erodes myelin homeostasis while enhancing oxidative metabolism in the mouse brain (2026) · cites this paper as [74]
In the citing paper
“In the Brain Immune Atlas aggregate of CD45+ cells from brain and meningeal regions, Plcg2 transcripts are detected in 18% of immune cells across parenchymal microglia and multiple border-associated macrophage (BAM) subsets, with choroid plexus surface and dural BAMs contributing many Plcg2+ cells and a small B-cell cluster displaying the highest per-cell Plcg2 expression in the dataset [74].”
From PLCγ2 deficiency compromises systemic immune tolerance and erodes myelin homeostasis while enhancing oxidative metabolism in the mouse brain (2026) · cites this paper as [74]
In the citing paper
“We identified a classical monocyte cluster that highly express Ly6c2, and a non-classical monocyte cluster highly express Itgal, similarly as a published single cell RNA-seq study.88”
From TET2-mutant myeloid cells mitigate Alzheimer’s disease progression via CNS infiltration and enhanced phagocytosis in mice (2025) · cites this paper as [88]
In the citing paper
“In addition, we confirmed previous findings of elevated expression of lipid-related genes in BAMs (31) and observed an increase in LD content within these cells over time and during disease progression.”
From Reducing microglial lipid load enhances β amyloid phagocytosis in an Alzheimer’s disease mouse model (2025) · cites this paper as [31]
In the citing paper
“MHCII+ macrophages are most abundant in the choroid plexus and meninges [37], and we similarly observe widespread uptake of L2-siRNA in this population (Fig. 5F).”
From Elucidating brain transport pathways and cell type-dependent gene silencing of a durable lipid–siRNA conjugate administered into cerebrospinal fluid (2025) · cites this paper as [37]
In the citing paper
“MHCII+ macrophages are most abundant in the choroid plexus and meninges,43 and we similarly observe widespread uptake of L2-siRNA in this population (Fig. 5F).”
From Lipid-siRNA conjugate accesses a perivascular transport mechanism and achieves widespread and durable knockdown in the central nervous system (2024) · cites this paper as [43]
In the citing paper
“The yolk sac-derived precursors of resident macrophages are only in the perivascular compartment [360,361], where they maintain their cellular origin in adulthood [362,363,364].”
From Revisiting the Pathogenesis of X-Linked Adrenoleukodystrophy (2025) · cites this paper as [364]
In the citing paper
“As immune surveillants, CAMs clear harmful substances through phagocytosis, antigen presentation, and cytokine production [364,368,371,372,373,374,375,376]”
From Revisiting the Pathogenesis of X-Linked Adrenoleukodystrophy (2025) · cites this paper as [364]
In the citing paper
“CD38 expression was associated with neuroinflammation with greater amounts of proinflammatory macrophages/microglia in mouse brains160,165.”
From NAD+ metabolism and its roles in cellular processes during ageing (2021) · cites this paper as [165]
In the citing paper
“This contrasts with macrophages in the choroid plexus and dura mater, which do turn over and receive some input from peripheral blood monocytes during adulthood (71-73).”
From The anatomy and immunology of vasculature in the central nervous system (2019) · cites this paper as [73]
In the citing paper
“Like microglia, most macrophages residing in the leptomeninges and perivascular spaces are derived from early yolk sac–derived erythromyeloid progenitors, and during steady state, these cells have minimal turnover.”
From The anatomy and immunology of vasculature in the central nervous system (2019) · cites this paper as [73]
In the citing paper
“On the basis of high-parameter mass cytometry and single-cell RNA-sequencing studies, the dural macrophages appear to be distinct from those residing in the pia and underlying parenchyma (73, 94).”
From The anatomy and immunology of vasculature in the central nervous system (2019) · cites this paper as [73]
In the citing paper
“The macrophages expressed markers of border associated macrophages (BAMs) (e.g., Apoe, Ms4a7, Ms4a6c) recently identified in periluminal regions, meninges, and ChP (Van Hove et al., 2019).”
From A cellular and spatial map of the choroid plexus across brain ventricles and ages (2021) · cites this paper as Van Hove et al., 2019
In the citing paper
“Similarly, we found a subset of macrophages expressing markers previously defined as subdural-specific BAMs (e.g., Lyve1, Ednrb, Colec12; Van Hove et al., 2019) that were enriched in embryonic ChP macrophages in our dataset (Figure S5H).”
From A cellular and spatial map of the choroid plexus across brain ventricles and ages (2021) · cites this paper as Van Hove et al., 2019
In the citing paper
“However, in contrast to Van Hove et al., our data revealed that this separation was age-dependent and potentially represented a maturation-dependent shift from MHC IIlow to MHC IIhigh (Figure 5I, S5I,J, Table S6).”
From A cellular and spatial map of the choroid plexus across brain ventricles and ages (2021) · cites this paper as Van Hove et al., 2019
In the citing paper
“In agreement with recent reports (Van Hove et al., 2019), we found diversity within the BAMs, which segregated into two subsets defined as major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class IIlow and MHC IIhigh.”
From A cellular and spatial map of the choroid plexus across brain ventricles and ages (2021) · cites this paper as Van Hove et al., 2019
In the citing paper
“These maturation dependent changes agree with a recent report of BAMs (Van Hove et al., 2019).”
From A cellular and spatial map of the choroid plexus across brain ventricles and ages (2021) · cites this paper as Van Hove et al., 2019
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InfluentialSingle-cell analysis reveals a longitudinal trajectory of meningioma evolution and heterogeneity
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“…populations, including Natural Killer (NK) cells, CD4, and CD8 T cells, which were further subclassi fi ed based on their functional states such as CD4 regulatory T cells ( CTLA4, FOXP3, ICOS ), cytotoxic CD8 T cells ( CCL5, CCL4, GZMA ), NKG2A+NK cells ( KLRC1 , GNLY, KLRF1 ) 42 – 44 (Fig.”
Immunosenescence of brain accelerates Alzheimer’s disease progression
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Myeloid masquerade: Microglial transcriptional signatures in retinal development and disease
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Neuroimmunology of Cardiovascular Disease
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“More recently, the communication between microglia and neurons was found to be a key mediator of blood pressure elevation [62 Single-cell RNA sequencing from multiple independent researchers has consistently shown that microglia do not express AT1R [63–68].”
BackgroundMeningeal brain borders and migraine headache genesis
Christensen, S. L., & Levy, D. (2024) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/j.tins.2024.08.012 · Cited by 13
Meningeal neutrophil immune signaling influences behavioral adaptation following threat
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“The ChP shares transcriptional signatures with microglia in the brain parenchyma [36, 37], immune cells in the meninges [38], and cell types associated with the blood–brain barrier (BBB) [39, 40].”
InfluentialIdentification of feature genes and pathways for Alzheimer's disease via WGCNA and LASSO regression
Sun, H., Yang, J., Li, X., Lyu, Y., Xu, Z., He, H., Tong, X., Ji, T., Ding, S., Zhou, C., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncom.2022.1001546 · Cited by 12
“This process requires an immune system network in the brain, which consists of the lymph in the meninges and the cerebrospinal fluid (Mrdjen et al., 2018; Hove et al., 2019), as has been demonstrated in autoimmune encephalomyelitis, glioblastoma and other diseases.”
BackgroundDelahaye‐Duriez, A., Dufour, A., Bokobza, C., Gressèns, P., & Steenwinckel, J. V. (2021) · Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1093/jnen/nlab049 · Cited by 13
Plasschaert, R. N., DeAndrade, M. P., Hull, F., Nguyen, Q., Peterson, T., Yan, A., Loperfido, M., Baricordi, C., Barbarossa, L., Yoon, J. K., et al. (2022) · Molecular Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.ymthe.2022.05.022 · Cited by 12
“Expression of specific MHC genes was previously reported to be associated with border-associated macrophages (BAMs), which are largely yolk-sac-derived macrophages that occupy a niche near the blood-brain barrier.(34) This signal is consistent with the engraftment history of i.”
BackgroundHe, N., Mao, X., Ding, Y.-M., Zuo, T., Chen, Y., & Wang, L. (2023) · Neural Regeneration Research · doi:10.4103/1673-5374.367836 · Cited by 11
“Resident immune cells are mainly composed of microglia and special macrophages outside the parenchyma and are known as border associated macrophages which reside in the perivascular space, meninges, and choroid plexus (Mrdjen et al., 2018; Van Hove et al., 2019).”
BackgroundMeningeal P2X7 Signaling Mediates Migraine-Related Intracranial Mechanical Hypersensitivity
Zhao, J., Harrison, S., & Levy, D. (2023) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0368-23.2023 · Cited by 12
Towards an Understanding of Microglia and Border-Associated Macrophages
Taketomi, T., & Tsuruta, F. (2023) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology12081091 · Cited by 12
Mulenge, F., Gern, O. L., Busker, L. M., Aringo, A., Ghita, L., Waltl, I., Pavlou, A., & Kalinke, U. (2024) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-024-03197-2 · Cited by 12
“These data-sets encompassed samples from (i) Van Hove et al. [23] who applied standard enzymatic tissue dissociation and flow cytometric sorting, (ii) Tepe et al. [26] who applied standard enzymatic tissue dissociation, (iii) Hammond et al. [31] who applied mechanical tissue dissociation and flow…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTau Accumulation Induces Microglial State Alterations in Alzheimer's Disease Model Mice
Nagata, K., Hashimoto, S., Joho, D., Fujioka, R., Matsuba, Y., Sekiguchi, M., Mihira, N., Motooka, D., Liu, Y., Okuzaki, D., et al. (2024) · eNeuro · doi:10.1523/eneuro.0260-24.2024 · Cited by 11
“Unique microglial states have been recently identi fi ed using single-cell RNA-seq in various genetically modi fi ed AD model mice, such as 5XFAD (Keren-Shaul et al., 2017; Zhou et al., 2020), APPPS1 (Van Hove et al., 2019), and App NL-G-F mice (Frigerio et al., 2019).”
García-Vicente, L., Martínez-Fernández, M., Borja, M., Tran, V., Álvarez-Vázquez, A., Flores-Hernández, R., Ding, Y., González-Sánchez, R., Granados, A. A., McGeever, A., et al. (2025) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-025-08092-x · Cited by 15
CNS Macrophages and Infant Infections
Oschwald, A., Petry, P., Kierdorf, K., & Erny, D. (2020) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.02123 · Cited by 11
“Similar to microglia, most CAM populations also arise from EMP-derived macrophage progenitors in mammals (14, 25).”
BackgroundVar, S. R., Strell, P., Johnson, S. T., Roman, A., Vasilakos, Z., & Low, W. C. (2023) · Cell Transplantation · doi:10.1177/09636897231171001 · Cited by 15
The clinical, genetic, and immune landscape of meningioma in patients with NF2-schwannomatosis
Gregory, G. E., Islim, A. I., Hannan, C. J., Jones, A. P., Hammerbeck-Ward, C. L., Rutherford, S. A., Freeman, S. R. M., Lloyd, S., Kalamarides, M., Smith, M. J., et al. (2023) · Neuro-Oncology Advances · doi:10.1093/noajnl/vdac127 · Cited by 13
Fate-Mapping Macrophages: From Ontogeny to Functions
Ahlback, A., & Gentek, R. (2023) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-0716-3437-0_2 · Cited by 13
TAMEP are brain tumor parenchymal cells controlling neoplastic angiogenesis and progression
Kälin, R. E., Cai, L., Li, Y., Zhao, D., Zhang, H., Cheng, J., Zhang, W., Wu, Y., Eisenhut, K., Janssen, P., et al. (2021) · Cell Systems · doi:10.1016/j.cels.2021.01.002 · Cited by 13
Ochocka, N., Segit, P., Walentynowicz, K. A., Wojnicki, K., Cyranowski, S., Swatler, J., Mieczkowski, J., & Kaminska, B. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/752949 · Cited by 11
Brain and blood single-cell transcriptomics in acute and subacute phases after experimental strokePreprint
García‐Bonilla, L., Shahanoor, Z., Sciortino, R. K., Nazarzoda, O., Racchumi, G., Iadecola, C., & Anrather, J. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.03.31.535150 · Cited by 12
Revisiting the Pathogenesis of X-Linked Adrenoleukodystrophy
Bougnères, P., & Le Stunff, C. (2025) · Genes · doi:10.3390/genes16050590 · Cited by 11
TGFβ signaling mediates microglial resilience to spatiotemporally restricted myelin degeneration
Zhu, K., Liu, Y., Min, J.-H., Joshua, V., Lin, J., Li, Y., Kreutzmann, J. C., Guo, Y., Xia, W., Mohammadi, E., et al. (2026) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41593-025-02161-4 · Cited by 11
Transcription factors that define the epigenome structures and transcriptomes in microglia
Saeki, K., & Ozato, K. (2025) · Experimental Hematology · doi:10.1016/j.exphem.2025.104814 · Cited by 11
Meningeal lymphatics as a therapeutic target for neurodegenerative disorders
Feng, Y., Wang, S., Xia, H., Jiang, X., Wu, M., Pan, S., & Song, W. (2025) · Translational Neurodegeneration · doi:10.1186/s40035-025-00528-y · Cited by 11
Qian, Z., Zhang, Z., Bai, W., Li, J., Rao, X., Huang, G., Liu, J., & Wei, W. (2026) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2025.1628142 · Cited by 12
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Therapeutic targeting of neuroimmune mechanisms in neurodegeneration
Monroe, K. M., Hong, S. Y., Lewcock, J. W., & Yang, A. C. (2026) · Nature Reviews Drug Discovery · doi:10.1038/s41573-025-01370-7 · Cited by 16
Huang, W., Cai, H., Liu, T., Du, Y., Xue, X., & Feng, G. (2023) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2023.114521 · Cited by 10
Long‐term reprogramming of primed microglia after moderate inhibition of CSF1R signaling
León‐Rodríguez, A., Grondona, J. M., Marín‐Wong, S., López‐Aranda, M. F., & López-Ávalos, M. D. (2024) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.24627 · Cited by 13
Cerebral biomimetic nano-drug delivery systems: A frontier strategy for immunotherapy
Tian, H., Yao, J., Ba, Q., Meng, Y., Cui, Y., Quan, L., Gong, W., Wang, Y., Yang, Y., Yang, M., et al. (2024) · Journal of Controlled Release · doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2024.10.058 · Cited by 12
Propagation of neuronal micronuclei regulates microglial characteristics
Yano, S., Asami, N., Kishi, Y., Takeda, I., Kubotani, H., Hattori, Y., Kitazawa, A., Hayashi, K., Kubo, K., Saeki, M., et al. (2025) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41593-024-01863-5 · Cited by 15
“The genes identified in GFP Low microglia were partially shared with genes that were highly expressed in BAM ( CD206 , Dab2 , Stab1 , Slc40a1 ) 16,61,62 (Fig.”
Mechanisms and environmental factors shaping the ecosystem of brain macrophages
Penati, S., Brioschi, S., Cai, Z., Han, C. Z., & Colonna, M. (2025) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2025.1539988 · Cited by 11
The choroid plexus: a command center for brain–body communication during inflammation
Xu, H., Hehnly, C., & Lehtinen, M. K. (2025) · Current Opinion in Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.coi.2025.102540 · Cited by 13
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“Cellular and molecular signature via IL-6 and TGF-β pathways revealed by the single-cell proteomics Proliferated parenchymal or border-associated microglia likely contribute to SAM emergence 24,26,28,46 .”
InfluentialThe Meninges as CNS Interfaces and the Roles of Meningeal Macrophages
Hiraki, C., & Tsuruta, F. (2025) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom15040497 · Cited by 12
“The role of CAMs in CNS disorders, including multiple sclerosis and Parkinson’s disease, as well as cerebrovascular diseases, has been extensively studied, primarily focusing on perivascular macrophages [2–4 , 70 ].”
InfluentialManavi, Z., Melchor, G. S., Bullard, M. R., Gross, P. S., Ray, S., Gaur, P., Baydyuk, M., & Huang, J. K. (2025) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-025-03425-3 · Cited by 10
The roles of immune factors in neurodevelopment
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“In adulthood, the vast majority of microglia are located within the parenchyma, although microglia-like cells have been found and characterized at the lepto-meninges or near the ventricles [14,15].”
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“In addition, there is a growing body of evidence that supports immune diversity in the brain and the potential for multiple complex interactions between infiltrating monocyte-derived macrophages, microglia, and other resident brain cells.(10,11) Following blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown post-TBI, the infiltration…”
Roussel‐Queval, A., Rebejac, J., Eme‐Scolan, E., et al. (2023) · STAR Protocols · doi:10.1016/j.xpro.2023.102119 · Cited by 10
Hippocampal Transcriptome Changes After Subarachnoid Hemorrhage in Mice
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“Previous studies using high-resolution techniques such as mass cytometry, single-cell RNA sequencing, and lineage tracing have gradually clarified the marker characteristics of BAMs, although some controversies remain [9, 11, 24].”
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Microglial cyclooxygenase-1 modulates cerebral capillary basal tone in vivo in mice
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“To con fi rm that microglia and PVMspossessdifferential eGFP fl uorescent intensity, we immunostained for the microglia speci fi c marker P2RY12 and PVM-speci fi c marker CD206 31 in male CX3CR1-eGFP mice (Fig.”
New insight into DAVF pathology—Clues from meningeal immunity
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“A recent study showed that microglia recovered in irf8−/− mutants at the adult stage, which were monocyte-derived (Van Hove et al., 2019).”
Result
Metadata
- Authors
- Van Hove, H., Martens, L., Scheyltjens, I., De Vlaminck, K., Pombo Antunes, A. R., De Prijck, S., Vandamme, N., De Schepper, S., Van Isterdael, G., Scott, C. L., Aerts, J., Berx, G., Boeckxstaens, G. E., Vandenbroucke, R. E., Vereecke, L., Moechars, D., Guilliams, M., Van Ginderachter, J. A., Saeys, Y., & Movahedi, K.
- Affiliations
- Ghent University (BE)
- Vrije Universiteit Brussel (BE)
- Janssen (Belgium) (BE)
- KU Leuven (BE)
- Ghent University Hospital (BE)
- Corresponding author
- Movahedi, Kiavash
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature Neuroscience
- Published
- 2019-05-06
- Volume
- 22
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1021-1035
- ISSN
- 1097-6256 (ISSN-L)
- 1546-1726
- OpenAlex
- W2943220296
- Cited by
- 1,074
- References
- 68
- Citations by year
- 2026: 160 · 2025: 156 · 2024: 187 · 2023: 152 · 2022: 148 · 2021: 151 · 2020: 90 · 2019: 29
- FWCI
- 46.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- lirias.kuleuven.be
- Licence
- Locations
- Nature Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ghent University) (submittedVersion)
- Lirias (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- VUBIR (Vrije Universiteit Brussel) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Single-cell and spatial transcriptomics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Developmental Neuroscience › Neurogenesis and neuroplasticity mechanisms
- Keywords
- brain macrophages, border-associated macrophages, choroid plexus, dura mater, microglia, IRF8, macrophage ontogeny, postnatal brain development, self-renewal, cerebrospinal fluid
- MeSH terms
- Interferon Regulatory Factor-8, Animals, Brain, Cell Differentiation, Female, Macrophages, Male, Mice, Inbred C57BL, Microglia, Cell Lineage, Interferon Regulatory Factors, Mice
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