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Cited by 1Acute Kidney Injury ResearchAutophagy in Disease and TherapyChronic Kidney Disease and Diabetes

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Integrated multiomics analysis identifies potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for autophagy associated AKI to CKD transition

Open access
Wang, Yaojun, Li, Qiang·2025·Scientific Reports
DOI 10.1038/s41598-025-97269-9PMC PMC12012120

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Abstract

This study explored the relationship between acute kidney injury (AKI) and chronic kidney disease (CKD), focusing on autophagy-related genes and their immune infiltration during the transition from AKI to CKD. We performed weighted correlation network analysis (WGCNA) using two microarray datasets (GSE139061 and GSE66494) in the GEO database and identified autophagy signatures by Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), and GSEA enrichment analysis. Machine learning algorithms such as LASSO, random forest, and XGBoost were used to construct the diagnostic model, and the diagnostic performance of GSE30718 (AKI) and GSE37171 (CKD) was used as validation cohorts to evaluate its diagnostic performance. The study identified 14 autophagy candidate genes, among which ATP6V1C1 and COPA were identified as key biomarkers that were able to effectively distinguish between AKI and CKD. Immune cell infiltration and GSEA analysis revealed immune dysregulation in AKI, and these genes were associated with inflammation and immune pathways. Single-cell analysis showed that ATP6V1C1 and COPA were specifically expressed in AKI and CKD, which may be related to renal fibrosis. In addition, drug prediction and molecular docking analysis proposed SZ(+)-(S)-202-791 and PDE4 inhibitor 16 as potential therapeutic agents. In summary, this study provides new insights into the relationship between AKI and CKD and lays a foundation for the development of new treatment strategies.

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Figures

Fig. 1 Workflow of the analysis.
Fig. 1 Workflow of the analysis.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Fig. 2 DEGs between AKI, CKD, and controls. (A, D) Genes that are significantly up- and down-regulated in acute kidney AKI and CKD are shown in red and green in the graphs, respectively. (B, E) Heatmap of the top 40 differentially expressed genes in AKI and CKD conditions, where blue denotes lowly expressed genes and red denotes highly expressed genes. The distribution of differential genes, including the number of up-regulated and down-regulated genes, is depicted in the scatterplot. (C, F). The vertical coordinate shows the fold change of differential genes, while the horizontal coordinate shows the number of differential genes.
Fig. 2 DEGs between AKI, CKD, and controls. (A, D) Genes that are significantly up- and down-regulated in acute kidney AKI and CKD are shown in red and green in the graphs, respectively. (B, E) Heatmap of the top 40 differentially expressed genes in AKI and CKD conditions, where blue denotes lowly expressed genes and red denotes highly expressed genes. The distribution of differential genes, including the number of up-regulated and down-regulated genes, is depicted in the scatterplot. (C, F). The vertical coordinate shows the fold change of differential genes, while the horizontal coordinate shows the number of differential genes.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Fig. 3 The DEGs identified in AKI using WGCNA. (A, B) The soft threshold of β = 14 was selected based on scale independence and average connectivity. (C) A hierarchical clustering dendrogram of AKI and control samples. (D) An adjacency heatmap of characteristic genes. (E) Co-expression modules are represented in different colors below the gene tree. (F) A correlation heatmap depicting the association between module genes and AKI, with the “magenta” module displaying the highest correlation. The upper left triangle uses color to denote the correlation coefficient, while the lower right triangle uses color to indicate the p-value. (G) A graph showing the correlation of “magenta” module genes and AKI.
Fig. 3 The DEGs identified in AKI using WGCNA. (A, B) The soft threshold of β = 14 was selected based on scale independence and average connectivity. (C) A hierarchical clustering dendrogram of AKI and control samples. (D) An adjacency heatmap of characteristic genes. (E) Co-expression modules are represented in different colors below the gene tree. (F) A correlation heatmap depicting the association between module genes and AKI, with the “magenta” module displaying the highest correlation. The upper left triangle uses color to denote the correlation coefficient, while the lower right triangle uses color to indicate the p-value. (G) A graph showing the correlation of “magenta” module genes and AKI.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Fig. 4 Functional enrichment analysis of autophagy-related genes. (A) Differential genes in CKD were identified by Limma, modular genes in AKI were identified by WGCNA, and the intersection of the autophagy gene set included 14 genes as shown in the Venny diagram. (B–D) GO analysis covers biological processes, cellular components, and molecular functions, with the vertical axis indicating GO terms and the horizontal axis indicating the proportion of genes involved in the corresponding GO process. The size of the circle corresponds to the number of genes and the shade of the color indicates the p-value. (E) KEGG pathway analysis results, different colors indicate different important pathways and their related genes. (F) The GeneMANIA website was used to identify functionally similar genes and to build a PPI network. 20 functionally similar genes are located in the outer circle, while 14 hub genes are located in the inner circle. The color of the nodes correlates with protein function, while the line color represents the type of protein interaction.”
Fig. 4 Functional enrichment analysis of autophagy-related genes. (A) Differential genes in CKD were identified by Limma, modular genes in AKI were identified by WGCNA, and the intersection of the autophagy gene set included 14 genes as shown in the Venny diagram. (B–D) GO analysis covers biological processes, cellular components, and molecular functions, with the vertical axis indicating GO terms and the horizontal axis indicating the proportion of genes involved in the corresponding GO process. The size of the circle corresponds to the number of genes and the shade of the color indicates the p-value. (E) KEGG pathway analysis results, different colors indicate different important pathways and their related genes. (F) The GeneMANIA website was used to identify functionally similar genes and to build a PPI network. 20 functionally similar genes are located in the outer circle, while 14 hub genes are located in the inner circle. The color of the nodes correlates with protein function, while the line color represents the type of protein interaction.”CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Fig. 5 Three machine learning algorithms identify key diagnostic genes from autophagy-related genes. (A, B) Key genes identified by the LASSO regression with a total of 5 genes considered suitable for diagnosis. (C) Forest plot showing the results of multifactorial analysis of COX based on 5 key genes. (D) Validation of the diagnostic efficacy of the key genes by ROC (E) Risk score heatmap depicting the high- and low-risk differential expression profiles of the 5 genes in the training cohort. (F) The results of the Random Forest algorithm are demonstrated by scoring. (G) Results of the XGBOOST algorithm are shown by scoring. (H) Key genes obtained through the overlap of the three algorithms are shown as Venny plots.
Fig. 5 Three machine learning algorithms identify key diagnostic genes from autophagy-related genes. (A, B) Key genes identified by the LASSO regression with a total of 5 genes considered suitable for diagnosis. (C) Forest plot showing the results of multifactorial analysis of COX based on 5 key genes. (D) Validation of the diagnostic efficacy of the key genes by ROC (E) Risk score heatmap depicting the high- and low-risk differential expression profiles of the 5 genes in the training cohort. (F) The results of the Random Forest algorithm are demonstrated by scoring. (G) Results of the XGBOOST algorithm are shown by scoring. (H) Key genes obtained through the overlap of the three algorithms are shown as Venny plots.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Fig. 6 Validation of key genes, construction of Nomogram, and evaluation of its diagnostic value. (A, B) Differential expression of candidate genes was validated in the validation sets of AKI and CKD. (C) Nomogram construction of the diagnostic model. (D) Calibration curve of the diagnostic model. (E–H) Diagnostic efficacy of candidate genes in the model validated by ROC curve.
Fig. 6 Validation of key genes, construction of Nomogram, and evaluation of its diagnostic value. (A, B) Differential expression of candidate genes was validated in the validation sets of AKI and CKD. (C) Nomogram construction of the diagnostic model. (D) Calibration curve of the diagnostic model. (E–H) Diagnostic efficacy of candidate genes in the model validated by ROC curve.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Fig. 7 Immune infiltration analysis of AKI and CKD versus controls (A, D) Superimposed bar graphs showing the proportions of the 24 immune cell types in all samples. (B, E) Correlation heatmap of the 24 immune cell types. Red color indicates positive correlation, blue color indicates negative correlation, and numbers in the graph represent correlation coefficients. (C, F) Comparison of the proportions of immune cells in AKI and CKD and controls. Significance is indicated by *p < 0.05; p < 0.01; *p < 0.001.
Fig. 7 Immune infiltration analysis of AKI and CKD versus controls (A, D) Superimposed bar graphs showing the proportions of the 24 immune cell types in all samples. (B, E) Correlation heatmap of the 24 immune cell types. Red color indicates positive correlation, blue color indicates negative correlation, and numbers in the graph represent correlation coefficients. (C, F) Comparison of the proportions of immune cells in AKI and CKD and controls. Significance is indicated by *p < 0.05; p < 0.01; *p < 0.001.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Fig. 8 GSEA immune pathway analysis of candidate genes. (A, C) GSEA analysis of candidate genes in AKI. (C, D) GSEA analysis of candidate genes in CKD. The top box represents the enrichment score of the pathway, the middlebox represents the immune pathway associated with the candidate gene, and the bottom box represents the expression level of the candidate gene.
Fig. 8 GSEA immune pathway analysis of candidate genes. (A, C) GSEA analysis of candidate genes in AKI. (C, D) GSEA analysis of candidate genes in CKD. The top box represents the enrichment score of the pathway, the middlebox represents the immune pathway associated with the candidate gene, and the bottom box represents the expression level of the candidate gene.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Fig. 9 Construction of miRNA-mRNA-TF network by candidate genes and functional enrichment analysis of miRNAs. (A) miRNA-mRNA-TF network constructed based on 2 candidate genes. Yellow circles represent candidate genes, blue squares represent predicted miRNAs and green circles represent predicted TFs. (B) Pathway analysis of predicted miRNAs through online platforms is shown in the heatmap.
Fig. 9 Construction of miRNA-mRNA-TF network by candidate genes and functional enrichment analysis of miRNAs. (A) miRNA-mRNA-TF network constructed based on 2 candidate genes. Yellow circles represent candidate genes, blue squares represent predicted miRNAs and green circles represent predicted TFs. (B) Pathway analysis of predicted miRNAs through online platforms is shown in the heatmap.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Fig. 10 Differential expression of candidate genes in single cells. (A) Cellular compartmentalization of ATP6V1C1 in the single-cell dataset. (B) Expression distribution of ATP6V1C1 in normal tissues. (C) Distribution of ATP6V1C1 expression in AKI tissues. (D) Expression distribution of ATP6V1C1 in CKD tissues. (E) Multiple histograms demonstrating the differences in cellular expression of ATP6V1C1 in normal tissues, AKI, and CKD. (F) Cellular fractionation of COPA in the single-cell dataset. (G) Distribution of COPA expression in normal tissues. (H) Distribution of COPA expression in AKI tissues. (I) Distribution of COPA expression in CKD tissues. (J) Multiple sets of bar graphs demonstrating the differences in cellular expression of COPA in normal tissues, AKI, and CKD.
Fig. 10 Differential expression of candidate genes in single cells. (A) Cellular compartmentalization of ATP6V1C1 in the single-cell dataset. (B) Expression distribution of ATP6V1C1 in normal tissues. (C) Distribution of ATP6V1C1 expression in AKI tissues. (D) Expression distribution of ATP6V1C1 in CKD tissues. (E) Multiple histograms demonstrating the differences in cellular expression of ATP6V1C1 in normal tissues, AKI, and CKD. (F) Cellular fractionation of COPA in the single-cell dataset. (G) Distribution of COPA expression in normal tissues. (H) Distribution of COPA expression in AKI tissues. (I) Distribution of COPA expression in CKD tissues. (J) Multiple sets of bar graphs demonstrating the differences in cellular expression of COPA in normal tissues, AKI, and CKD.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Fig. 11 Expression and localization of ATP6V1C1 and COPA. (A, B) RNA and protein expression levels of ATP6V1C1 and COPA in human tissues. (C, D) Immunohistochemical analysis of ATP6V1C1 and COPA proteins in kidney. (E, F) Immunofluorescence localization analysis of ATP6V1C1 and COPA in different cell lines. Green: ATP6V1C1 and COPA proteins; blue: nuclei; red: microtubules.
Fig. 11 Expression and localization of ATP6V1C1 and COPA. (A, B) RNA and protein expression levels of ATP6V1C1 and COPA in human tissues. (C, D) Immunohistochemical analysis of ATP6V1C1 and COPA proteins in kidney. (E, F) Immunofluorescence localization analysis of ATP6V1C1 and COPA in different cell lines. Green: ATP6V1C1 and COPA proteins; blue: nuclei; red: microtubules.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Fig. 12 Prediction and molecular docking of therapeutic drugs for candidate genes. (A) Prediction of targeting drugs for candidate genes through an online platform visualized using Cytoscape software. Blue squares represent candidate genes and orange squares represent drugs. (B) Molecular docking of ligand-protein and receptor drug crystals and their visualization.
Fig. 12 Prediction and molecular docking of therapeutic drugs for candidate genes. (A) Prediction of targeting drugs for candidate genes through an online platform visualized using Cytoscape software. Blue squares represent candidate genes and orange squares represent drugs. (B) Molecular docking of ligand-protein and receptor drug crystals and their visualization.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central

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Metadata

Authors
Wang, Y., & Li, Q.
Affiliations
  • Affiliated Hospital of Hebei University (CN)
  • People's Liberation Army Air Force (CN)
Corresponding author
Li, Qiang
ORCID
Venue
Scientific Reports
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2025-04-21
Volume
15
Issue
1
Pages
13687-13687
ISSN
2045-2322 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1038/s41598-025-97269-9
PMC
PMC12012120
OpenAlex
W4409619675
Cited by
1
References
73
Citations by year
2026: 1
FWCI
0.69
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Scientific Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Research Square (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Nephrology › Acute Kidney Injury Research
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Autophagy in Disease and Therapy
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Nephrology › Chronic Kidney Disease and Diabetes
Keywords
acute kidney injury, chronic kidney disease, autophagy, AKI-to-CKD transition, biomarkers, therapeutic target, COPA, immune cell infiltration, renal fibrosis, inflammation, drug prediction, molecular docking
MeSH terms
Multiomics, Autophagy, Humans, Biomarkers, Gene Expression Profiling, Renal Insufficiency, Chronic, Gene Regulatory Networks, Acute Kidney Injury, Molecular Docking Simulation, Gene Ontology

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