Participatory action research

May combine two claims.

Action Research later gained currency as a popular approach for professionals such as teachers and nurses to develop their own practices, and tended to focus on relatively small-scale adjustments.

“Action Research later gained currency as a popular approach for professionals such as teachers and nurses to develop their own practices, and tended to focus on relatively small-scale adjustments, within a given institutional structure, rather than challenging power relations as in anticolonial PAR 13,20 .”

• cites [13] Reason, P. & Bradbury, H. The Sage Handbook of Action Research: Participative Inquiry and Practice (Sage, 2015). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [20] Adelman, C. Kurt Lewin and the origins of action research. Educ. Action Res. 1, 7–24 (1993). sourcePartly supported

  In the section on subsequent UK action research (page unavailable), Adelman describes small-scale programmes and teachers researching their own practice, and criticises a later emphasis on individual reflection over group and institutional change. The copy does not establish the claim about nurses or characterise action research generally as limited to small adjustments within existing institutions; it also describes participatory work that addressed power relations. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

This orientation prioritised people's participation in producing knowledge, rather than the positioning of local populations as the subject of knowledge production practices imposed by outside experts.

“This orientation prioritised people's participation in producing knowledge, rather than the positioning of local populations as the subject of knowledge production practices imposed by outside experts 16 .”

• cites [16] Díaz-Arévalo, J. M. In search of the ontology of participation in Participatory Action Research: Orlando Fals-Borda’s Participatory Turn, 1977–1980. Action Res. https://doi.org/10.1177/14767503221103571 (2022). sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

For PAR, the research process is as important as the outcomes; projects aim to create empowering relationships and environments within the research process itself.

“For PAR, the research process is as important as the outcomes; projects aim to create empowering relationships and environments within the research process itself 31 .”

• cites [31] Marzi, S. Co-producing impact-in-process with participatory audio-visual research. Area https://doi.org/10.1111/area.12851 (2022). sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the late 20th century, participatory research gained currency in academic fields such as participatory development, participatory health promotion and creative methods.

“In the late 20 th century, participatory research gained currency in academic fields such as participatory development, 21,22 participatory health promotion 23 and creative methods 24 .”

• cites [21] Chambers, R. The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisal. World Dev. 22, 953–969 (1994). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [22] Cornwall, A. & Jewkes, R. What is participatory research? Soc. Sci. Med. 41, 1667–1676 (1995). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [23] Wallerstein, N. & Duran, B. Community-based participatory research contributions to intervention research: the intersection of science and practice to improve health equity. Am. J. Public Health 100, S40–S46 (2010). sourcePartly supported

  The citation is attached to participatory health promotion, not the separately cited fields of participatory development or creative methods. The paper discusses a 1995 study of participatory research in health promotion (Abstract; References, item 2), establishing its presence in that field in the late 20th century. It does not establish that the approach gained currency during that period; its discussion of growing academic recognition concerns a later decade. (LLM, conf=0.77)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [24] Wang, C. & Burris, M. A. Photovoice: concept, methodology, and use for participatory needs assessment. Health Educ. Behav. 24, 369–387 (1997). sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Developing community members' research skills for data collection and analysis can be a valued contribution to a PAR project.

“Developing community members' research skills for data collection and analysis can be a valued contribution to a PAR project, potentially generating longer term capacities for local research and change-making.52”

• cites [52] Schoonen, A., Wood, L. & Kruger, C. Learning to facilitate community-based research: guidelines from a novice researcher. Educ. Res. Soc. Change 10, 16–32 (2021). sourcePartly supported

  The Competence section says facilitators should create opportunities for participants to use and develop their skills, and Theoretical Positioning describes participants as producers of knowledge and agents of change (page numbers unavailable). The passages do not specifically say that developing community members’ data-collection and analysis skills is a valued contribution or that it builds longer-term local research capacity. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gathering quantitative data is an option, particularly in the tradition of participatory statistics.

“Gathering quantitative data is an option, particularly in the tradition of participatory statistics 51 .”

• cites [51] Marzi, S. Participatory video from a distance: co-producing knowledge during the COVID-19 pandemic using smartphones. Qual. Res. https://doi.org/10.1177/14687941211038171 (2021). sourceCould not verify

  The section ‘The use of smartphones in qualitative research’ describes collecting audio-visual and textual data, but does not address quantitative data collection or participatory statistics. Searches for ‘participatory statistics’ and ‘quantitative data collection’ found no passage establishing the claimed option. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Positionalities are not fixed, but can be changing, multiple, and even contradictory.

“Positionalities are not fixed, but can be changing, multiple, and even contradictory 44 .”

• cites [44] Alejandro, A. Reflexive discourse analysis: a methodology for the practice of reflexivity. Eur. J. Int. Relat. 27, 150–174 (2021). sourcePartly supported

  The RDA section (p. 9) explicitly warns against ignoring the “dynamism of positionality in practice,” supporting the claim that positionality is not fixed. The theoretical framework (pp. 5–6) also discusses transforming dispositions, including identification categories. Neither passage establishes that positionalities can be multiple or contradictory. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

PAR gained legitimacy and recognition during the 1980s, with origins in popular education for development led by scholars from the Global South, and taken up in International Development.

“As a named methodological paradigm, PAR gained legitimacy and recognition during the 1980s, with origins in popular education for development, led by scholars from the Global South 16,32 , and taken up in the more Global-North-dominated field of International Development, where the failings of externally imposed, contextually insensitive development solutions had become undeniable 21 .”

• cites [16] Díaz-Arévalo, J. M. In search of the ontology of participation in Participatory Action Research: Orlando Fals-Borda’s Participatory Turn, 1977–1980. Action Res. https://doi.org/10.1177/14767503221103571 (2022). sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (p. 3) traces PAR to radical action research among practitioners concerned with poverty and exploitation in the Global South. The international-networking section (p. 9) links participatory research to adult education, and the closing remarks (p. 16) describe PAR’s more mature formulation in the 1980s. These passages support the Global South and educational connections, but do not establish that PAR originated specifically in popular education for development or gained legitimacy and recognition as a named paradigm during the 1980s. The later International Development clause has a separate citation in the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [32] Fals-Borda, O. The application of participatory action-research in Latin America. Int. Sociol. 2, 329–347 (1987). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [21] Chambers, R. The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisal. World Dev. 22, 953–969 (1994). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The concept of decolonisation is at risk of appropriation by dominant groups and further tokenisation of Indigenous groups.

“Yet, just as PAR has been subject to co-option and depoliticisation, the concept of decolonisation too is at risk of appropriation by dominant groups and further tokenisation of Indigenous groups, as universities, government departments and global health institutions absorb the concept, fitting it into their existing power structures 43,78 .”

• cites [43] Herr, K. & Anderson, G. The Action Research Dissertation: A Guide for Students and Faculty (SAGE, 2005). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [78] Tembo, D. et al. Effective engagement and involvement with community stakeholders in the co-production of global health research. BMJ 372, n178 (2021). sourceCould not verify

  The “Sharing power” section discusses power imbalances between research institutions and communities, but does not address whether decolonisation can be appropriated by dominant groups or lead to tokenisation of Indigenous groups. Searches for decolonisation, appropriation, and tokenisation found no passage making that point. No page numbers were available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

In the Morris Justice Project in New York, local residents surveyed their neighbours about stop and frisk experiences and, joining the coalition 'Communities United for Police Reform', successfully campaigned for changes to the city's policing laws.

“Local residents surveyed their neighbours to gather evidence on experiences of stop and frisk, compiling their statistics and experiences and sharing them with the local community on the sidewalk, projecting their findings on to public buildings, and joining a coalition 'Communities United for Police Reform', which successfully campaigned for changes to the city's policing laws.”

• cites [77] Gumbonzvanda, N., Gumbonzvanda, F. & Burgess, R. Decolonising the ‘safe space’ as an African innovation: the Nhanga as quiet activism to improve women’s health and wellbeing. Crit. Public Health 31, 169–181 (2021). sourceCould not verify

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 2 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Growing pressure on marginalised communities to meet their survival needs left them little capacity for participating in and building long-term partnerships.

“the material context of growing pressure on marginalised communities to simply meet their needs for survival, leaving little capacity for participating in and building long term partnerships”

• cites [67] de-Graft Aikins, A. Healer shopping in Africa: new evidence from rural-urban qualitative study of Ghanaian diabetes experiences. BMJ 331, 737 (2005). sourcePartly supported

  The paper reports that financial hardship undermined low-income participants’ long-term engagement in diabetes care (Box 1) and that low-income families were unlikely to provide consistent, long-term support to relatives with diabetes (What this study adds; page numbers unavailable). It does not address marginalised communities’ capacity to participate in or build long-term partnerships. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PAR works best with collaborative approaches to leadership and flexible co-researchers.

“PAR works best with collaborative approaches to leadership, and identities among co-researchers as active team members, facilitators, and participants in a research setting, prepared to be flexible and responsive to provocations from the situation and from co-researchers and to adjust project plans accordingly 28,71,72 .”

• cites [28] Akom, A. A. A. Black emancipatory action research: integrating a theory of structural racialisation into ethnographic and participatory action research methods. Ethnogr. Educ. 6, 113–131 (2011). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [71] Bhambra, G. K., Gebrial, D. & Nisancioglu, K. in Decolonising the University (eds Bhambra, G. K., Gebrial, D. & Nişancıoğlu, K.) 1–18 (Pluto Press, 2018). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [72] Seckinelgin, H. Teaching social policy as if students matter: decolonizing the curriculum and perpetuating epistemic injustice. Crit. Soc. Policy https://doi.org/10.1177/02610183221103745 (2022). sourceCould not verify

  The Methodology of being-there section (pp. 5–6) describes an intimate-insider approach and the use of student responses, while How do we respond? (pp. 10–11) discusses responses to student demands. Neither addresses PAR, collaborative leadership, or flexible co-researcher roles; searches for those terms and for facilitators adjusting project plans found no supporting passage. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

University-based researchers relied on their own capacities to invent new modes of digital collaboration and to nourish their partnerships with communities, often despite limited institutional support.

“They describe university-based researchers relying on their own capacities to invent new modes of digital collaboration and nourish their partnerships with communities, often despite limited institutional support.”

• cites [67] de-Graft Aikins, A. Healer shopping in Africa: new evidence from rural-urban qualitative study of Ghanaian diabetes experiences. BMJ 331, 737 (2005). sourceCould not verify

  The Data collection section describes interviews, focus groups, and in-person ethnographies with people with diabetes. A search for digital collaboration, community partnerships, and limited institutional support found no passage addressing the attributed claim; the funding note mentions student grants but does not make that claim. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.75)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Anyon and colleagues systematically reviewed Youth PAR literature in the United States and found emerging evidence that PAR produces positive outcomes for youth.

“Anyon and colleagues 62 systematically reviewed Youth PAR literature in the United States.They found emerging evidence that PAR produces positive outcomes for youth and argued for further research using experimental designs to provide harder evidence.”

• cites [62] Cornish, F. Communicative generalisation: dialogical means of advancing knowledge through a case study of an ‘unprecedented’ disaster. Cult. Psychol. 26, 78–95 (2020). sourceCould not verify

  The Introduction (pp. 3–5) discusses community responses to a disaster, while the discussion of research designs (p. 6) concerns generalisation from case studies. Searches for Anyon, Youth PAR, positive youth outcomes, and experimental designs found no passage in our copy addressing the attributed review or its findings. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The COVID-19 pandemic was accompanied by increasing marketisation and austerity in some universities.

“identify increasing marketisation and austerity in some universities”

• cites [67] de-Graft Aikins, A. Healer shopping in Africa: new evidence from rural-urban qualitative study of Ghanaian diabetes experiences. BMJ 331, 737 (2005). sourceCould not verify

  The Introduction describes the study’s aim as examining diabetes-related illness practices in Ghana, and the Results concern participants’ choices among forms of care. Searches for COVID-19, universities, marketisation, and austerity found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

PAR does not follow a set research design, or particular methodology, but constitutes a strategic rallying point for collaborative, impactful, contextually situated and inclusive efforts to document, interpret and address complex systemic problems.

“PAR does not follow a set research design, or particular methodology, but constitutes a strategic rallying point for collaborative, impactful, contextually situated and inclusive efforts to document, interpret and address complex systemic problems 3 .”

• cites [3] McIntyre, A. Participatory Action Research (Sage, 2007). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

PAR values the expertise generated through experience, claiming that those who have been marginalised or harmed by current social relations have deep experiential knowledge of those systems, and deserve to own and lead initiatives to change them.

“PAR values the expertise generated through experience, claiming that those who have been marginalised or harmed by current social relations have deep experiential knowledge of those systems, and deserve to own and lead initiatives to change them 3,5,17,18 .”

• cites [3] McIntyre, A. Participatory Action Research (Sage, 2007). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [5] Chilisa, B. Indigenous Research Methodologies (Sage, 2019). A thorough and accessible grounding in the epistemology, methodology and methods of postcolonial, Indigenous research, suitable for a wide audience and rooted in African knowledge systems.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [17] McKittrick, K. Dear Science and Other Stories (Duke Univ. Press, 2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [18] Mohanty, C. T. Under Western eyes: feminist scholarship and colonial discourses. Bound. 2 12/13, 333–358 (1984). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Anti-colonial movements strived to overthrow symbolic and epistemic injustices, ousting the authority of Western science to author knowledge about dominated peoples.

“As anti-colonial movements worked to overthrow territorial and economic domination, they also strived to overthrow symbolic and epistemic injustices [G], ousting the authority of Western science to author knowledge about dominated peoples 4,14 .”

• cites [4] Smith, L. T. Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples (Bloomsbury, 2021). A foundational book in decolonization and Indigenous methods, including theory, critique and methodological guidance, rooted in Indigenous thought in Aotearoa/New Zealand. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [14] Le Grange, L. Challenges for participatory action research and indigenous knowledge in Africa. Acta Acad. 33, 136 (0000).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PAR appealed to those inspired by Black and postcolonial feminists who challenged established knowledge hierarchies.

“Meanwhile, PAR appealed to those inspired by Black and postcolonial feminists who challenged established knowledge hierarchies, arguing for the wisdom of people marginalised by centres of power, who, in the process of survivance, that is surviving and resisting oppressive social structures, came to know and deconstruct those structures acutely.17,18”

• cites [17] McKittrick, K. Dear Science and Other Stories (Duke Univ. Press, 2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [18] Mohanty, C. T. Under Western eyes: feminist scholarship and colonial discourses. Bound. 2 12/13, 333–358 (1984). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The development of PAR is a product of intellectual and activist work bridging universities and communities, with separate genealogies in several Indigenous, Latin American, Indian, African, Black feminist, and Euro-American traditions.

“The development of PAR is a product of intellectual and activist work bridging universities and communities, with separate genealogies in several Indigenous 4,5 , Latin American 6,7 , Indian 8 , African 9 , Black feminist 10,11 , and Euro-American 12,13 traditions.”

• cites [4] Smith, L. T. Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples (Bloomsbury, 2021). A foundational book in decolonization and Indigenous methods, including theory, critique and methodological guidance, rooted in Indigenous thought in Aotearoa/New Zealand. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [5] Chilisa, B. Indigenous Research Methodologies (Sage, 2019). A thorough and accessible grounding in the epistemology, methodology and methods of postcolonial, Indigenous research, suitable for a wide audience and rooted in African knowledge systems.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [6] Fals-Borda, O. & Rahman, M. A. Action and Knowledge (Practical Action Publishing, 1991). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [7] Freire, P. Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Continuum, 1970).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [8] Rahman, M. A. in The SAGE Handbook of Action Research: Participative Inquiry and Practice (eds Reason, P. & Bradbury, H.) 49–62 (Sage, 2008).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Communities are sites of the production of similarity and difference, equality and inequalities, and politics.

“Communities are sites of the production of similarity and difference, equality and inequalities, and politics.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The fundamental process of building relationships occurs throughout the cycles.

“The fundamental process of building relationships occurs throughout the cycles.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The definition of a problem is not always self-evident, and producing a problem definition can be a valid outcome of PAR.

“The definition of a problem, however, is not always selfevident, and producing a problem definition can be a valid outcome of PAR.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Alternatively, a university-based researcher may reach out to representatives of communities facing evident problems, to explore common interests and the potential for collaboration.

“Alternatively, a university-based researcher may reach out to representatives of communities facing evident problems, to explore common interests and the potential for collaboration 42 .”

• cites [42] Lucko, J. Positionality and power in PAR: exploring the competing motivations of PAR stakeholders with latinx middle school students in Northern California. in Education | Faculty Conference Presentations (Dominican Univ., 2018).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Articulating research questions is an early milestone.

“Articulating research questions is an early milestone.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

A PAR scholar works across the university-community boundary, and thus is accountable both to university values and grassroots communities' values.

“A PAR scholar works across the university-community boundary, and thus is accountable both to university values and grassroots communities' values.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Relational ethics are important to PAR projects and raise critical questions regarding the purpose and conduct of knowledge production and application.

“Beyond procedural research ethics perspectives, relational ethics [G] are important to PAR projects and raise critical questions regarding the purpose and conduct of knowledge production and application.39,60,61”

• cites [39] Buckles, D., Khedkar, R. & Ghevde, B. Fighting eviction: local learning and the experience of inequality among India’s adivāsi. Action. Res. 13, 262–280 (2015). A strong example of a sustained university–community partnership in India that used PAR to build expertise and power in a tribal community to improve their security of tenure. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [60] de-Graft Aikins, A. et al. Building cardiovascular disease competence in an urban poor Ghanaian community: a social psychology of participation approach. J. Community Appl. Soc. Psychol. 30, 419–440 (2020). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [61] Feldman, S. & Shaw, L. The epistemological and ethical challenges of archiving and sharing qualitative data. Am. Behav. Sci. 63, 699–721 (2019). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Actions could be targeted at a wide range of scales and different stakeholders, with differing intended outcomes.

“Actions could be targeted at a wide range of scales and different stakeholders, with differing intended outcomes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Facilitation skills are the most crucial skills for PAR practitioners at this stage.

“Facilitation skills are the most crucial skills for PAR practitioners at this stage.”

May combine two claims.

PAR ethics include standard research ethics considerations (avoidance of harm, anonymity, confidentiality, voluntary informed consent), though these issues may become more complex in a PAR framework.

“They include standard research ethics considerations traditionally addressed by Research Ethics Committees or Institutional Review Boards (IRBs), including key principles of avoidance of harm, anonymity and confidentiality, and voluntary informed consent, though these issues may become much more complex than traditionally presented, when working within a PAR framework 58 .”

• cites [58] Hopner, V. & Liu, J. C. Relational ethics and epistemology: the case for complementary first principles in psychology. Theory Psychol. 31, 179–198 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Relationships first, research second is a key principle for PAR project design.

“Relationships first, research second”

• cites [39] Buckles, D., Khedkar, R. & Ghevde, B. Fighting eviction: local learning and the experience of inequality among India’s adivāsi. Action. Res. 13, 262–280 (2015). A strong example of a sustained university–community partnership in India that used PAR to build expertise and power in a tribal community to improve their security of tenure. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

What counts as action and change is different for each PAR project.

“What counts as action and change is different for each PAR project.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

As a PAR project develops, the problem definition and research questions are often refined, through the iterative cycles.

“As a PAR project develops, the problem definition and research questions are often refined, through the iterative cycles.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Because PAR is often unfamiliar, misconstrued, or mistrusted by dominant scientific institutions, PAR practitioners may find themselves drawn into competitions and debates set on others' terms, or into projects interested in securing communities' participation, but not their emancipation.

“Because PAR is often unfamiliar, misconstrued, or mistrusted by dominant scientific 33 institutions, PAR practitioners may find themselves drawn into competitions and debates set on others' terms, or into projects interested in securing communities' participation, but not their emancipation.”

• cites [33] Liboiron, M. Pollution is Colonialism (Duke Univ. Press, 2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

A researcher parachuting in and out may be able to complete a research article, with community cooperation, but will not be able to see through the hard graft of a programme of participatory research towards social change.

“A researcher parachuting in and out may be able to complete a research article, with community cooperation, but will not be able to see through the hard graft of a programme of participatory research towards social change.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Trustworthy relationships depend upon scholars being aware, open, and honest about their own interests and perspectives.

“Trustworthy relationships depend upon scholars being aware, open, and honest about their own interests and perspectives.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Problem definition is a key step for PAR teams.

“Problem definition is a key step for PAR teams, where problem does not necessarily mean something negative or a deficit, but to the identification of an important issue at stake for a community.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Participatory research includes participants in the conceptualisation, design and conduct of a project, but may not prioritise action and social change to the extent that PAR does.

“Though participatory research includes participants in the conceptualisation, design and conduct of a project, it may not prioritise action and social change to the extent that PAR does.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Not all issues need to be fully set out and decided at the outset of a project.

“Not all issues need to be fully set out and decided at the outset of a project.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Knowledge that has the status of common sense may itself reproduce inequalities or perpetuate harm.

“Knowledge that has the status of common sense may itself reproduce inequalities or perpetuate harm.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Projects often use qualitative methods, such as storytelling, interviewing or ethnography, or participatory methods.

“Projects often use qualitative methods, such as storytelling, interviewing or ethnography, or participatory methods, such as body mapping, problem trees, guided walks, timelines, diaries, participatory photography and video or participatory theatre.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

University-based researchers tend to justify the selection of the research topic with reference to a literature review, whereas in PAR, the topic must be a priority for the community.

“University-based researchers tend to justify the selection of the research topic with reference to a literature review, whereas in PAR, the topic must be a priority for the community.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Such collaborations are strengthened by institutional backing in the form of sustainable staff appointments, formal recognition of the value of university-community partnerships and provision of administrative support.

“Such collaborations are strengthened by institutional backing in the form of sustainable staff appointments, formal recognition of the value of university-community partnerships and provision of administrative support.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Engaging communities and participants in participatory exercises for the primary purpose of advancing research aims prioritised by a university or others is not PAR.

“Engaging communities and participants in participatory exercises for the primary purpose of advancing research aims prioritised by a university or others is not, we contend, PAR.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Strong collaborative relationships are based on mutual trust, which must be earned.

“Strong collaborative relationships are based on mutual trust, which must be earned.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A tried and tested approach to collaborative analysis is to use generated data as a basis for reflection on commonalities, patterns, differences, underlying causes, or potentials, on an ongoing basis.

“Rather, a tried and tested approach to collaborative analysis 55 [G] is to use generated data as a basis for reflection on commonalities, patterns, differences, underlying causes, or potentials, on an ongoing basis.”

• cites [55] Cahill, C. Repositioning ethical commitments: participatory action research as a relational praxis of social change. ACME Int. J. Crit. Geogr. 6, 360–373 (2007).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Articulating a theory of change is one way to demonstrate how we intend to bring about changes through designing an action plan.

“Articulating a theory of change is one way to demonstrate how we intend to bring about changes through designing an action plan.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Positionality is crucial to PAR relationships.

“Positionality is crucial to PAR relationships.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Out of dialogue, a PAR team aims to agree on an actionable problem definition.

“Out of dialogue, a PAR team aims to agree on an actionable problem definition, responding to the team's combination of skills, capacities and priorities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In a cyclical process, teams work together to come to an initial definition of their social problem, design a suitable action, observe and gather information on the results, and then analyse and reflect on the action and its impact, in order to learn, modify their understanding and inform the next iteration of the research-action cycle.

“In a cyclical process, teams work together to come to an initial definition of their social problem, design a suitable action, observe and gather information on the results, and then analyse and reflect on the action and its impact, in order to learn, modify their understanding and inform the next iteration of the research-action cycle (figure 1) 3,35 .”

• cites [3] McIntyre, A. Participatory Action Research (Sage, 2007). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [35] Elder, B. C. & Odoyo, K. O. Multiple methodologies: using community-based participatory research and decolonizing methodologies in Kenya. Int. J. Qual. Stud. Educ. 31, 293–311 (2018). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Selection among the options depends on underlying priorities, values, theories of how social change happens, and crucially, feasibility.

“Selection among the options depends on underlying priorities, values, theories of how social change happens, and crucially, feasibility.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Taking action is an integral part of a PAR process.

“Taking action is an integral part of a PAR process.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

A university-based researcher's positionalities interact with the positionalities of community co-researchers, shaping the collective definition of the problem and appropriate solutions.

“A university-based researcher's positionalities (including, for example, their gender, race, ethnicity, class, politics, skills, age, life stage, life experiences, assumptions about the problem, experience in research, activism and relationship to the topic) interact with the positionalities of community co-researchers, shaping the collective definition of the problem and appropriate solutions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Partnerships bring together people with different sets of norms, assumptions, interests, resources, timeframes and working practices, all nested in institutional structures and infrastructures that cement those assumptions.

“Partnerships bring together people with different sets of norms, assumptions, interests, resources, timeframes and working practices, all nested in institutional structures and infrastructures that cement those assumptions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The PAR research process is much more public from the outset.

“Compared to other methodologies, the PAR research process is much more public from the outset, and so practices of making key steps explicit, shareable, communicable and negotiable are essential.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Teams remain open throughout the cycle to repeating or revising earlier steps in response to developments in the field.

“Teams remain open throughout the cycle to repeating or revising earlier steps in response to developments in the field.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Qualifications, scholarly achievements or verbal reassurances are less relevant in this context than past or present valued contributions, participation in a heritage of transformational action, or evidence of solidarity with a community's causes.

“Qualifications, scholarly achievements or verbal reassurances are less relevant in this context than past or present valued contributions, participation in a heritage of transformational action, or evidence of solidarity with a community's causes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Many health and development organisations have frameworks to help design a theory of change.

“Many health and development organisations (such as Social Velocity 56 ) have frameworks to help design a theory of change.”

• cites [56] Wilson, E., Kenny, A. & Dickson-Swift, V. Ethical challenges in community-based participatory research: a scoping review. Qual. Health Res. 28, 189–199 (2018). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Cahill's PAR project with young undocumented students in the USA highlights intensely complex ethical issues of representation that will face many related projects.

“Reflecting on the ethics of her PAR project with young undocumented students in the USA, Cahill 58 highlights some of the intensely complex ethical issues of representation that arose, and that will face many related projects.”

• cites [58] Hopner, V. & Liu, J. C. Relational ethics and epistemology: the case for complementary first principles in psychology. Theory Psychol. 31, 179–198 (2021). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PAR is not prescriptive about the methods used to gather or generate observations.

“PAR is not prescriptive about the methods used to gather or generate observations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Problem definitions are political, they imply some forms of action and not others.

“Problem definitions are political, they imply some forms of action and not others.”

May combine two claims.

PAR questions prioritise community concerns so they may differ from academic-driven research questions.

“PAR questions prioritise community concerns so they may differ from academic-driven research questions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Partnership working is a complex art, calling for thoughtful design of joint working practices and a willingness to invest the necessary time.

“In short, partnership working is a complex art, calling for thoughtful design of joint working practices and a willingness to invest the necessary time.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The motivation for a PAR project may come from university-based or community-based researchers.

“The motivation for a PAR project may come from university-based or community-based researchers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Relational ethics encourage an emphasis on inclusive practices, dialogue, mutual respect and care, collective decision-making, and collaborative action.

“Relational ethics encourage an emphasis on inclusive practices, dialogue, mutual respect and care, collective decision-making, and collaborative action 60 .”

• cites [60] de-Graft Aikins, A. et al. Building cardiovascular disease competence in an urban poor Ghanaian community: a social psychology of participation approach. J. Community Appl. Soc. Psychol. 30, 419–440 (2020). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The selection of a specific orientation or approach to analysis is often a low priority for community-based co-researchers.

“The selection of a specific orientation or approach to analysis is often a low priority for community-based co-researchers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A foundation of trust allows work to move ahead without every element being pinned down in advance.

“A foundation of trust, through building relationships in building block 1, allows work to move ahead without every element being pinned down in advance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Questions posed by Indigenous scholars seeking to decolonise Western knowledge production practices are pertinent to a relational ethics approach.

“Questions posed by Indigenous scholars seeking to decolonise Western knowledge production practices are pertinent to a relational ethics approach 4,28 .”

• cites [4] Smith, L. T. Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples (Bloomsbury, 2021). A foundational book in decolonization and Indigenous methods, including theory, critique and methodological guidance, rooted in Indigenous thought in Aotearoa/New Zealand. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [28] Akom, A. A. A. Black emancipatory action research: integrating a theory of structural racialisation into ethnographic and participatory action research methods. Ethnogr. Educ. 6, 113–131 (2011). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Collaborative relationships usually extend beyond a particular PAR project, and it is rare that one PAR project finalises a desired change.

“Collaborative relationships usually extend beyond a particular PAR project, and it is rare that one PAR project finalises a desired change.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PAR projects aspire to producing knowledge with wider implications, typically discussed as generalisability or transferability.

“At the same time, PAR projects also aspire to producing knowledge with wider implications, typically discussed under the term generalisability or transferability.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

PAR can best maximise its societal contribution and its own development and renewal by harnessing the diverse wisdom of knowledge generation and participatory methods across Southern regions and communities, and using that wisdom to participate in global solidarities and demands for redistribution of knowledge, wealth and power.

“We suggest that PAR can best maximise its societal contribution and its own development and renewal by harnessing the diverse wisdom of knowledge generation and participatory methods across Southern regions and communities, using that wisdom to participate in global solidarities and demands for redistribution of knowledge, wealth and power.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Global and local inequalities continue to grow, intensified by climate catastrophes, the COVID-19 pandemic and extreme concentrations of wealth and political influence.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Building solidaristic networks and thereby collective power, within and beyond universities, offers the most promising grounding for a fruitful outlook for PAR.

“We suggest that building solidaristic networks and thus building collective power, within and beyond universities offers the most promising grounding for a fruitful outlook for PAR.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Global and local inequalities continue to grow, intensified by climate catastrophes, the COVID-19 pandemic and extreme concentrations of wealth and political influence.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

PAR projects are always applied in the sense that they are situated in concrete human and social problems and aim to produce workable local actions.

“PAR projects are always applied in the sense that they are situated in concrete human and social problems and aim to produce workable local actions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Labelling work PAR does not make it emancipatory without emancipatory action.

“Labelling our work PAR does not make it emancipatory, without emancipatory action.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

PAR disrupts the traditional theory-application binary.

“PAR disrupts the traditional theory-application binary, which usually assumes that abstract knowledge is developed through basic science, to then be interpreted and applied in professional or community contexts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The term 'participation' has become a policy buzzword invoked to strengthen an organisation's case that they have listened to people.

“The term”

May combine two claims.

PAR projects can produce actions across a wide range of scales (from small, local to large, structural) and across different temporal scales.

“PAR projects can produce actions across a wide range of scales (from”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

PAR scholars can find solidarity across a range of disciplines, traditions, social movements, topics and geographical locations.

“PAR scholars can find solidarity across a range of disciplines, traditions, social movements, topics and geographical locations.”

May combine two claims.

Participatory Action Research develops through a series of cycles, with relationship-building as a constant practice.

“Participatory Action Research develops through a series of cycles, with relationship-building as a constant practice.”

• cites O'Leary's 37,38Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Power inequalities also affect PAR teams and communities.

“Power inequalities also affect PAR teams and communities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

PAR projects often challenge the social structures that reproduce established power relations.

“PAR projects often challenge the social structures that reproduce established power relations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

PAR is a methodology that stands to contribute to de-colonisation through the development of alternatives to centralising knowledge and power.

“PAR is a methodology that stands to contribute to de-colonisation through the development of alternatives to centralising knowledge and power.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PAR is consonant with participatory movements across multiple disciplines and sectors.

“PAR is consonant with participatory movements across multiple disciplines and sectors, and thus finds many intellectual homes.”

May combine two claims.

In the Tsui Anaa Project in Accra, Ghana, a health support group of people living with diabetes and cardiovascular conditions (the Jamestown Health Club) was formed, met monthly, and contributed as patient advocates to community, city and national non-communicable disease policy.

“A health support group of people living with diabetes and cardiovascular conditions, called Jamestown Health Club (JTHC), was formed, met monthly, and contributed as patient advocates to community, city and national non-communicable disease policy.”

• cites [63] Anderson, G. Participatory action research (PAR) as democratic disruption: new public management and educational research in schools and universities. Int. J. Qual. Stud. Educ. 30, 432–449 (2017). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Participatory methods have proven their relevance in health and public service contexts, providing insights to clinicians and social service providers.

“Participatory methods have proven their relevance within such contexts, for example, providing actionable and wise insights to clinicians seeking to learn from patients, or to providers of social services seeking to target their services better.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

PAR researchers do not strive for reproducibility, and many would contest the applicability of this construct.

“A key issue is that PAR researchers do not strive for reproducibility, and many would contest the applicability of this construct.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Communities are characterised by diversity as much as by commonality, with differences across sociological lines such as class, race, gender, age, occupation, housing tenure, health status.

“Yet communities are characterised by diversity as much as by commonality, with differences across sociological lines such as class, race, gender, age, occupation, housing tenure, health status.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Finding solidarity across disciplines, traditions, movements and locations offers to bridge traditions, share strategies and resonances, build methodologies and politics, and build power.

“Doing so offers to bridge traditions, share strategies and resonances, build methodologies and politics, and crucially, build power.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The authors recognise that power struggles are ongoing, landlords would continue to aggressively pursue their interests, and their achievements were provisional and require vigilance and continued action.

“Even here, however, the authors do not simply celebrate their achievements, but recognise that power struggles are ongoing, landlords would continue to aggressively pursue their interests, and thus their achievements were provisional and would require vigilance and continued action.”

• cites [41] Tuck, E. & Yang, K. W. Decolonization is not a metaphor. Decolonization Indigeneity Educ. Soc. 1, 1–40 (2012).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Collectively, the Katkari community's legal knowledge and groundwork gave them confidence to remove fencing and take legal action, leading to 70 applications for formal village sites.

“Collectively, their legal knowledge and groundwork gave them confidence to remove fencing erected by landlords and to taking legal action to regularise their land rights, ultimately leading to 70 applications being made for formal village sites.”

• cites [41] Tuck, E. & Yang, K. W. Decolonization is not a metaphor. Decolonization Indigeneity Educ. Soc. 1, 1–40 (2012).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Perz and colleagues argue that in the context of sustainability research in the Amazon, the days of externally driven research are past.

“In the context of sustainability research in the Amazon, for instance, Perz and colleagues 82 argue that the days of externally driven research are past.”

• cites [82] Koshy, E., Koshy, V. & Waterman, H. Action Research in Healthcare https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446288696 (Sage, 2011). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The authors argue for altered conceptions of urban and urban education scholarly literatures in response to this youth-led knowledge.

“The authors argue for altered conceptions of urban and urban education scholarly literatures, in response to this youth-led knowledge.”

• cites [25] Tuck, E. & Habtom, S. Unforgetting place in urban education through creative participatory visual methods. Educ. Theory 69, 241–256 (2019). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

A blanket assumption that all data should be made freely available is rarely appropriate in a PAR project and may conflict with ethical priorities.

“On the other hand, however, a blanket assumption that all data should be made freely available is rarely appropriate in a PAR project, and may come into conflict with ethical priorities.”

May combine two claims.

Through legal challenges, engagement with local politics and emboldened local communities, over 100 Katkari communities in Maharashtra, India were more secure and better organised five years later.

“Subsequently, through legal challenges, engagement with local politics and emboldened local communities, over 100 Katkari communities were more secure and better organised 5 years later.”

• cites [41] Tuck, E. & Yang, K. W. Decolonization is not a metaphor. Decolonization Indigeneity Educ. Soc. 1, 1–40 (2012).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

University-based researchers engaging with marginalised communities often do not share many aspects of the identities or life experiences of those communities.

“Most frequently, university-based researchers engaging with marginalised communities do not themselves share many aspects of the identities or life experiences of those communities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A version of a PAR project could be devised to tackle almost any real-world problem where researchers are committed to an emancipatory and participatory epistemology.

“A version of a PAR project could be devised to tackle almost any real-world problem -where the researchers are committed to an emancipatory and participatory epistemology.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: PAR is a very flexible approach.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In global health research, Abimbola and colleagues call for building Southern networks in order to break away from the dominance of North-South partnerships.

“In global health research, Abimbola and colleagues 83 call for the building of Southern networks, to break away from the dominance of North-South partnerships.”

• cites [83]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Through their photography project, the participants expressed how place and its history, particularly histories of settler colonialism, matters in cities, against a more standard view that treated the urban as interchangeable, modern, or neutral.

“Through their photography project, they expressed how place, and its history, particularly histories of settler colonialism, matters in cities -against a more standard view that treated the urban as somehow interchangeable, modern, or neutral.”

• cites [25] Tuck, E. & Habtom, S. Unforgetting place in urban education through creative participatory visual methods. Educ. Theory 69, 241–256 (2019). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source