Cited by 503Visual perception and processing mechanismsAesthetic Perception and AnalysisTactile and Sensory Interactions

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Subjective contours.

Kanizsa, Gaetano·1976·Scientific American

DOI 10.1038/scientificamerican0476-48

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“Frontiers in Psychology | Perception Science August 2014 | Volume 5 | Article 819 | 2 from long-duration inducing elements (Coren, 1972; Kanizsa, 1976; Petry and Meyer, 1987; Purghe and Coren, 1992).”
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“A first-person experimental approach is also found in the investigation of illusions (Kanizsa 1976; Müller-Lyer 1889).”
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“3), which aims at the detection of subjective contours [36], i.”
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“The reliability of methods for identifying these interactions across frequency bands can be examined using the well-known illusory contour (IC) stimuli [18].”
Background
Cortical oscillatory activity associated with the perception of illusory and real visual contours
Kinsey, K., Anderson, S. J., Hadjipapas, A., Nevado, Á., Hillebrand, A., & Holliday, I. E. (2009) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2009.04.004 · Cited by 15
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“Previous studies have also shown that humans tend to perceive the overall shape of an object (Beck 1966a; Beck 1966b; Kanizsa 1976).”
Result
Evoked and Induced Gamma-Frequency Oscillations in Autism
Casanova, M. F., Baruth, J. M., El-Baz, A. S., Sokhadze, G. E., Hensley, M. K., & Sokhadze, E. M. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6843-1_5 · Cited by 17
Mouse Ability to Perceive Subjective Contours
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“The Kanizsa triangle is frequently used to induce perception of SCs (Kanizsa, 1976).”
Filters Versus Textons in Human and Machine Texture Discrimination
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Neural correlates underlying the attentional spotlight in human parietal cortex independent of task difficulty
Zeng, H., Weidner, R., Fink, G. R., & Chen, Q. (2017) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23709 · Cited by 13
“EXPERIMENT 2 As the empty space between the two lines in the present paradigm could be perceptually coded as surface [Kanizsa, 1976], one may argue that the present paradigm may not be able to effectively manipulate the size of the spatial area attended.”
Background
Perceiving subjective contours during early childhood
Abravanel, E. (1982) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-0965(82)90020-0 · Cited by 14
Visual evoked potentials induced by illusory outlines (Kanizsa's square)
Korshunova, S. G. (1999) · Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology · doi:10.1007/bf02462486 · Cited by 14
The illusion of transparency and chromatic subjective contours
Meyer, G. E., & Senecal, M. (1983) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03205896 · Cited by 14
The effort to close the gap: Tracking the development of illusory contour processing from childhood to adulthood with high-density electrical mapping
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Schlottmann, A., Cole, K. L. H., Watts, R., & White, M. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00365 · Cited by 14
From Focused Thought to Reveries: A Memory System for a Conscious Robot
Balkenius, C., Tjøstheim, T. A., Johansson, B., & Gärdenfors, P. (2018) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2018.00029 · Cited by 12
“The role of perception can be seen when considering the well-known Kanizsa triangle (Kanizsa, 1976) ( Figure 2 ).”
Background
Precise Ensemble Face Representation Given Incomplete Visual Input
Haberman, J. M., & Ulrich, L. (2019) · i-Perception · doi:10.1177/2041669518819014 · Cited by 13
“In the current set of experiments, we explored amodal ensemble representation by leveraging what is already known about amodal completion, a strong cue to occlusion and scene depth (e.g., Coren, 1972; Kanizsa, 1976).”
Background
Global scene layout modulates contextual learning in change detection
Conci, M., & Müller, H. J. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00089 · Cited by 13
“…1977) depicted in Figure 1A consists of an arrangement of the local letters “H,” which combine to form the global letter “U.” Similarly, Kanizsa figures (Kanizsa, 1976) comprise a local arrangement of circular inducers, which yield the impression of a salient, global square shape (Figure 1B).”
Background
Illusory contour strength does not depend on the dynamics or relative phase of the inducers
Victor, J. D., & Conte, M. M. (2000) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/s0042-6989(00)00190-5 · Cited by 13
“Illusory contour formation (Kanizsa, 1976; Prazdny, 1985) and hyperacuity judgments (Westheimer, 1981; Klein & Levi, 1985) highlight the great spatial specificity with which visual inputs can be combined.”
Influential
Dynamic competition between contour integration and contour segmentation probed with moving stimuli
Lorenceau, J., Giersch, A., & Seriès, P. (2004) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2004.07.033 · Cited by 13
“…Queen Square, London WC1N 3AR, UK. capability requires that disconnected segments of the same object are integrated into a single contour (contour completion and integration, e.g. Kanisza, 1976), while segments from other objects are segregated to avoid spurious associations (contour segmentation).”
BackgroundMethod
Retinal Mechanisms in the Perception of Subjective Contours: The Contribution of Lateral Inhibition
Coren, S. (1991) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p200181 · Cited by 13
Skeletal descriptions of shape provide unique perceptual information for object recognitionPreprint
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“An observer is able to imagine a triangle although the ﬁ gure shown is a decomposed set of detached elements (Kanizsa, 1976).”
Illusory Contours over Pathological Retinal Scotomas
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“Figures which produce illusory contours, such as the classic Kanizsa triangle (Kanizsa, 1976), have provided many insights into this problem by revealing the inferential processes made in determining figure-ground relationships.”
Background
Higher Cortical Visual Disorders
Prasad, S., & Dinkin, M. (2019) · CONTINUUM Lifelong Learning in Neurology · doi:10.1212/con.0000000000000774 · Cited by 11
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“The two most extensively studied mechanisms capable of overcoming the fragmented visual inputs are often referred to as modal and amodal completion (Kanizsa, 1976, 1979; Kellman, 2003; Michotte, Thines, & Crabbe, 1964).”
Object integration requires attention: Visual search for Kanizsa figures in parietal extinction
Gögler, N., Finke, K., Keller, I., Müller, H. J., & Conci, M. (2016) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.06.006 · Cited by 11
“A prominent example illustrating grouping processes is the illusory ‘Kanizsa figure’, that is, the holistic percept of a bounded and foregrounded geometric figure (triangle, square) that is actually comprised of spatially disjointed elements (Kanizsa, 1976).”
Background
A Case of Perceptual Completion in Spatio-Temporal Tactile Space
Kaneko, S., Kajimoto, H., & Hayward, V. (2018) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-93445-7_5 · Cited by 13
“In vision, well-known instances of completion are the so-called ‘subjective contours’ that appear when there is a “jump” in the stimulation created by partially occulting a geometrical figure by another [17].”
Background
Morphometric analysis of B2cAMP-induced reverse transformation in synchronized CHO cells
Parodi, S., Beltrame, F., Lessin, S. R., et al. (1979) · Cell Biophysics · doi:10.1007/bf02783668 · Cited by 11
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Attribute amnesia can be modulated by foveal presentation and the pre-allocation of endogenous spatial attention
Born, S., Jordan, D., & Kerzel, D. (2020) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-020-01983-7 · Cited by 10
“In one study (Eitam et al., 2015), they presented a Kanizsa rectangle (Kanizsa, 1976), induced by four “Pacman” stimuli, for 500 ms at the center of the screen and asked participants to report the color of the inducers and the orientation of the induced rectangle.”
Method
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Development of a vocabulary of object shapes in a child with a very-early-acquired visual agnosia: A unique case
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“They can also perceive illusory contours in Kanizsa stimuli (Ghim, 1990; Kanizsa, 1976). In contrast to the early development of grouping principles, the ability to segment touching objects develops relatively late. Needham and Baillargeon (1998) showed that infants of 4 months treat touching objects as one. A few wee…”
BackgroundInfluential
Disillusionment
Erle, T. M., & Topolinski, S. (2018) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000419 · Cited by 10
“Another example of this principle is the equally famous Kanizsa triangle (Kanizsa, 1955, 1976).”
Background
Figural Conditions Affecting the Formation of Anomalous Surfaces: Overall Configuration versus Single Stimulus Part
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“The fundamental insight derived from Kant (1929), and reiterated by numerous philosophers, psychologists, and neuroscientists, is that consciousness is an active process (e.g., Kandel et al. 2000: 412; Sekuler and Blake 2002: 123–124; Kanizsa 1976, 1979).”
Background
Functional Modules of the Brain
Philipson, L. (2002) · Journal of Theoretical Biology · doi:10.1006/jtbi.2001.2501 · Cited by 10
The influence of illusory contours on the detection of luminance increments and decrements
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The status of perceptual grouping 70 years after Wertheimer
Gillam, B. (1992) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049539208259836 · Cited by 10
Contextual modulation emerges by integrating feedforward and feedback processing in mouse visual cortex
Santo, S. D., Dipoppa, M., Keller, A. J., Roth, M., Scanziani, M., & Miller, K. D. (2024) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2024.115088 · Cited by 13
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Krantz, J. H. (2007) · Journal of Voice · doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2007.02.003 · Cited by 9
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Dillenburger, B., & Roe, A. W. (2009) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00001.2009 · Cited by 9
“…qualitatively change the perceptual strength of illusory contours depending on their orientation (Gillam and Chan 2002; Gillam and Nakayama 2002; Kanizsa 1976): Kanizsa-type triangles are perceptually strengthened by lines abutting the illusory outlines but weakened by lines superimposed on the…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
The visual phantom illusion: a perceptual product of surface completion depending on brightness and contrast
Kitaoka, A., Gyoba, J., & Sakurai, K. (2006) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/s0079-6123(06)54013-0 · Cited by 9
Attentional selection and illusory surface appearance
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Illusory Contours in Line Patterns with Apparent Depth Due to Either Perspective or Overlay
Day, R. H., & Kasperczyk, R. T. (1983) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p120485 · Cited by 8
Frequency modulation facilitates (modal) auditory restoration of a gap
Remijn, G. B., Vallejos, E. P., Nakajima, Y., et al. (2008) · Hearing Research · doi:10.1016/j.heares.2008.06.007 · Cited by 9
Role of motion integration in contour perception
Sinha, P. (2001) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/s0042-6989(00)00306-0 · Cited by 9
“Before testing, subjects were shown a printed image of a Kanizsa triangle (Kanizsa, 1976) to familiarize them with the notion of subjective contours.”
Background
Anomalous Contours and Illusion of Angularity: Phenomenal and Theoretical Comparisons
Pinna, B. (1991) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p200207 · Cited by 9
A Double Neon Colour Illusion
van Lier, R. (2002) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p3118 · Cited by 9
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Leeuwenberg, E. L. J., & Buffart, H. (1983) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)62056-7 · Cited by 9
Privileged Directions for Subjective Contours: Horizontal and Vertical versus Tilted
Purghé, F. (1989) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p180201 · Cited by 9
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Chiorri, C., & Vannucci, M. (2024) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence12020021 · Cited by 10
“Explaining why this perceptual effect occurs is beyond the scope of this work, but one classic explanation is Kanizsa’s “causal hypothesis” (see, e.g., Kanizsa 1976, 1979) Despite the fact that both locations offer the same level of visual stimulation, the area within the subjective contours…”
Background
Visual imagery vividness correlates with afterimage conscious perception
Kronemer, S. I., Holness, M., Morgan, A., Teves, J., González-Castillo, J., Handwerker, D. A., & Bandettini, P. A. (2024) · Neuroscience of Consciousness · doi:10.1093/nc/niae032 · Cited by 9
Functional differences of low- and high-frequency oscillatory dynamics during illusory border perception
Bosman, C. A., Zamorano, F. J., & Aboitiz, F. (2010) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2010.01.004 · Cited by 8
A portable graphics library for introductory CS
Roberts, E. S., & Schwarz, K. (2013) · ACM Conference on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education (ITiCSE) · doi:10.1145/2462476.2465590 · Cited by 8
“This square, however, is an optical illusion consisting of a subjective contour, as defined by Gaetano Kanizsa in Scientific American in 1976 [6].”
Developmental visual perception deficits with no indications of prosopagnosia in a child with abnormal eye movements
Gilaie‐Dotan, S., & Doron, R. (2017) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.04.014 · Cited by 7
DLPFC-PPC-cTBS effects on metacognitive awareness
Martin, A., Lane, T. J., & Hsu, T. (2023) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2023.05.022 · Cited by 9
Contour Erasure and Filling-in: New Observations
Anstis, S., & Greenlee, M. W. (2014) · i-Perception · doi:10.1068/i0624rep · Cited by 8
“Fast filling-in includes the perception of illusory contours such as the Kanisza (1976) square or neon spreading (Bressan et al., 1997; van Tuijl & de Weert, 1979) or the filling-in of afterimage colours (Francis & Kim, 2012), and also the amodal completion of objects that are partly hidden from…”
Background
Attention capture by salient object groupings in the neglected visual field
Nowack, L., Finke, K., Biel, A. L., Keller, I., Müller, H. J., & Conci, M. (2021) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2021.02.011 · Cited by 8
“One prominent example is the “Kanizsa figure” (Kanizsa, 1976), where the arrangement of several disks with missing quarter-segments creates a vivid impression of an illusory object, such as the shape of a square, that lacks a corresponding physical object (see Fig.”
Background
A Hierarchical Approach to Perception
Proffítt, D. R. (1993) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)62770-3 · Cited by 8
Event Perception, Perceptual Organization and Emotion
Walk, R. D. (1984) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)62353-5 · Cited by 8
Visual Selective Attention to Object Features
Proverbio, A. M., & Zani, A. (2003) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012775421-5/50014-5 · Cited by 8
Is Amodal Completion Necessary for the Formation of Illusory Figures?
Purghé, F. (1991) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p200623 · Cited by 8
A selection and targeting framework of cortical locations for line‐scanning fMRI
Heij, J., Raimondo, L., Siero, J. C. W., Dumoulin, S. O., van der Zwaag, W., & Knapen, T. H. J. (2023) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.26459 · Cited by 7
“, 2013) or Kanizsa illusion (Kanizsa, 1976; Kok et al., 2016; Kok & de Lange, 2014) experiments to separate ascending/descending signals across depth by placing the stimulus of interest”
Background
A Model for a Filling-in Process Triggered by Edges Predicts “Conflicting” Afterimage Effects
Cohen-Duwek, H., & Spitzer, H. (2018) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2018.00559 · Cited by 7
“In addition, psychophysical experiment are required for cases where the remaining contours that trigger the ﬁlling-in eﬀect are illusory contours, such as those in the Kanizsa eﬀect and the Neon color spreading eﬀects (Van Tuijl, 1975; Kanizsa, 1976).”
Background
A Compound Computational Model for Filling-In Processes Triggered by Edges: Watercolor Illusions
Cohen-Duwek, H., & Spitzer, H. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.00225 · Cited by 7
“This model also attempts to explain a number of other visual phenomena including the Kaniza illusion (Kanizsa, 1976), neon color spreading (van Tuijl and Leeuwenberg, 1979), simultaneous contrast, and assimilation eﬀects.”
Background
A Canonical Laminar Neocortical Circuit Whose Bottom-Up, Horizontal, and Top-Down Pathways Control Attention, Learning, and Prediction
Grossberg, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2021.650263 · Cited by 9
“Figure 3 illustrates several examples of the illusory contours that induce percepts of Kanizsa squares (Kanizsa, 1955, 1974, 1976).”
Background
Diverse patterns of vulnerability to visual illusions in children with neurodevelopmental disorders
Makris, G., Pervanidou, P., Chouliaras, G. L., Stachtea, X., Valavani, E., Bastaki, D., Κορκολιάκου, Π., Bali, P., Poulaki, K., Chrousos, G. P., et al. (2021) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-021-01041-6 · Cited by 9
“…(Shepard 1990); Shelves count illusion, Blivet illusion (Schuster 1964) Fictions Illusory contours – Kanizsa’s triangle, Letter “E” completion figure (Kanizsa 1976) Illusory motions Ōuchi illusion (Spillmann 2013; Ouchi 1977); Rota- tor motion illusion, Dots in motion illusion, Other illusory…”
Background
Challenging deep learning models with image distortion based on the abutting grating illusion
Fan, J., & Zeng, Y. (2023) · Patterns · doi:10.1016/j.patter.2023.100695 · Cited by 7
“The most famous example is the Kanizsa triangle, 26 as shown in Figure 1A, whichwascreatedby theItalianpsychologistGaetano Kanizsa in 1955.”
Method
It’s all in the timing: delayed feedback in autism may weaken predictive mechanisms during contour integration
Knight, E. J., Altschuler, T. S., Molholm, S., Murphy, J. W., Freedman, E. G., & Foxe, J. J. (2024) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00058.2024 · Cited by 7
The Nature of, Perceptual Illusions
Day, R. H. (1984) · Interdisciplinary Science Reviews · doi:10.1179/isr.1984.9.1.47 · Cited by 7
The role of early visual input in the development of contour interpolation: the case of subjective contours
Hadad, B., Maurer, D. M., & Lewis, T. L. (2016) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12379 · Cited by 7
“In some cases, such as in the case of the Kanizsa figure shown in Figure 1A, interpolation between isolated image parts leads to the perception of an object with edges where there is no physical change (e.g. Kanizsa, 1976, 1979).”
Background
Cue-dependent circuits for illusory contours in humans
Anken, J., Knebel, J., Crottaz‐Herbette, S., Matusz, P. J., Lefebvre, J., & Murray, M. M. (2016) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.01.052 · Cited by 7
“A commonly-used stimulus was popularized by Kanizsa (1976) and includes an array of circular sectors (pacmen), whose mouths are oriented so to induce ICs or, alternatively, rotated as to prevent such perceptions (hereafter nocontour; NC) (Figure 1).”
MethodInfluential
Deep Architectures
Gori, M. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-100659-7.00005-1 · Cited by 10
Chapter 10 Comparative population analysis of cortical representations in parametric spaces of visual field and skin: a unifying role for nonlinear interactions as a basis for active information processing across modalities
Dinse, H. R., & Jancke, D. (2001) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/s0079-6123(01)30011-0 · Cited by 7
Masking with minimal contours: Selective inhibition with low spatial frequencies
Gilden, D. L., MacDonald, K. E., & Lasaga, M. I. (1988) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03208704 · Cited by 7
Recovery of superquadric primitive from stereo images
Chen, L.-H., Wei-Chung, L., & Mark, L. H.-Y. (1994) · Image and Vision Computing · doi:10.1016/0262-8856(94)90034-5 · Cited by 7
Visual consciousness in health and disease
Whatham, A. R., Vuilleumier, P. O., Landis, T., & Safran, A. B. (2003) · Neurologic Clinics · doi:10.1016/s0733-8619(02)00122-6 · Cited by 7

Authors: Kanizsa, G.
Corresponding author: Kanizsa, Gaetano
Venue: Scientific American
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 1976-04
Volume: 234
Issue: 4
Pages: 48-52
ISSN: 0036-8733 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1038/scientificamerican0476-48
OpenAlex: W4251427381
Cited by: 503
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 19 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 12
FWCI: 3.95
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Scientific American (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Aesthetic Perception and Analysis
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
Keywords: illusory contours, visual perception, figure-ground perception, depth perception
MeSH terms: Form Perception, Humans, Illusions, Optical Illusions

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