Cited by 503Visual perception and processing mechanismsAesthetic Perception and AnalysisTactile and Sensory Interactions

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Subjective contours.

Kanizsa, Gaetano·1976·Scientific American

DOI 10.1038/scientificamerican0476-48

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“Figure 1 shows an example of Kanizsa illusory contour (or subjective contour) [1, 2].”
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Impaired early visual response modulations to spatial information in chronic schizophrenia
Knebel, J., Javitt, D. C., & Murray, M. M. (2011) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2011.02.006 · Cited by 45
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“Furthermore, there is a subjective impression of enhanced brightness of the area within the square, very similar to the brightness enhancement that occurs within illusory contours or subjective contours resulting from long-duration inducing elements (Coren, 1972; Kanizsa, 1976; Petry & Meyer, 1987; Purghe & Coren, 199…”
Background
Network snakes: graph-based object delineation with active contour models
Butenuth, M., & Heipke, C. (2010) · Machine Vision and Applications · doi:10.1007/s00138-010-0294-8 · Cited by 40
“The technique can also be regarded as a method to delineate subjective contours or surfaces [16], i.”
Numerosity underestimation in sets with illusory contours
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“Consider the Kanizsa (1976) illusion, where four circular “Pac-Man” elements (i.e., inducers) are aligned to form an illusory square (Figure 1A).”
Background
The Determinants of Illusory-Contour Perception
Halpern, D. F. (1981) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p100199 · Cited by 41
Time With and Without Tense
Smith, C. S. (2008) · Studies in natural language and linguistic theory · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8354-9_10 · Cited by 40
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Ayzenberg, V., Chen, Y., Yousif, S. R., & Lourenco, S. F. (2019) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/19.6.6 · Cited by 37
“Classic work on illusory shapes suggests that shape perception can take place without real contours (Kanizsa, 1976).”
Early electrophysiological indices of illusory contour processing within the lateral occipital complex are virtually impervious to manipulations of illusion strength
Altschuler, T. S., Molholm, S., Russo, N. N., Snyder, A. C., Brandwein, A. B., Blanco, D., & Foxe, J. J. (2011) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.10.051 · Cited by 38
“Using illusory contour (IC) stimuli, first described by Schumann (1900) and subsequently by Kanizsa (1976), a well-studied stimulus class whose processing time-course in humans has been carefully detailed using visually-evoked potentials (VEPs) (e.g., Foxe et al., 2005; Murray et al., 2002), we…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Stereopsis and the perception of anomalous contours
Hamsher, K. D. S. (1978) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(78)90068-4 · Cited by 38
Global and local visual processing in autism: An objective assessment approach
Nayar, K., Voyles, A. C., Kiorpes, L., & Martino, A. D. (2017) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1782 · Cited by 40
“Kanizsa illusory contours (KICs) [Kanizsa, 1976] provide an alternative objective approach to assess global/ local visual perception.”
Background
Are Illusory Contours a Cause or a Consequence of Apparent Differences in Brightness and Depth in the Kanizsa Square?
Watanabe, T., & Oyama, T. (1988) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p170513 · Cited by 37
AN AUTOMATIC SATELLITE INTERPRETATION OF TROPICAL CYCLONE PATTERNS USING ELASTIC GRAPH DYNAMIC LINK MODEL
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Coloured Illusory Triangles Due to Assimilation
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Gallotto, S., Sack, A. T., Schuhmann, T., & de Graaf, T. A. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01147 · Cited by 41
“A famous example is the Kanizsa triangle (Kanizsa, 1976): one perceives triangle-contours, even though lines delineating the sides of the triangle – which usually cause the conscious triangle percept – are missing from the image.”
Background
Computational Neural Models of Spatial Integration in Perceptual Grouping
Heiko Neumann, B., & Mingolla, E. (2001) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(01)80032-7 · Cited by 35
Activities: States or Events?
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Op Art and Visual Perception
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Avoiding explosive search in automatic selection of simplest pattern codes
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Amodal completion as a basis for illusory contours
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“Kanizsa illusory figures (IF) [Kanizsa, 1955, 1976] demonstrate the capability of the visual system to integrate *Correspondence to: Afiza Abu Bakar, Laboratory for Human Brain Dynamics, RIKEN Brain Science Institute, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako-shi, Saitama, Japan 351-0198.”
Background
Neuronal response to texture- and contrast-defined boundaries in early visual cortex
SONG, Y., & Baker, C. L. (2007) · Visual Neuroscience · doi:10.1017/s0952523807070113 · Cited by 31
“They were primarily designed to handle occlusion boundaries ~Heitger et al., 1992! and a broader variety of types of ICs, such as “pac-man” type figures ~Kanizsa, 1976! that span relatively large distances between inducers ~for review, see Neumann & Mingolla, 2001!.”
Background
Illusory contours and specific regions of human extrastriate cortex: evidence from rTMS
Brighina, F., Ricci, R., Piazza, A., et al. (2003) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1046/j.1460-9568.2003.02679.x · Cited by 31
Forms Can Be Recognized from Dynamic Occlusion Alone
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Visual evoked potentials elicited by subjective contour figures
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Constructing Meaning
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“When the lights were moved to illuminate an adjacent rectangle, participants reported that the patches retained their original coloration despite the large changes in the intensity and spectral distribution of the light.”
Background
Age-related decline in global form suppression
Wiegand, I., Finke, K., Töllner, T., Starman‐Wöhrle, K., Müller, H. J., & Conci, M. (2015) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.10.006 · Cited by 28
Illusory-Contour Formation Affected by Luminance Contrast Polarity
He, Z. J., & Ooi, T. L. (1998) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p270313 · Cited by 30
“There are, however, some observations indicating that brightness spreading from the inducing elements may not be solely responsible for producing illusory contours (Kanizsa 1976; Kellman and Cohen 1984; Kellman and Loukides 1987; Parks 1980).”
Background
Perceptual organization of moving stimuli modulates the flash-lag effect.
Watanabe, K., Nijhawan, R., Khurana, B., et al. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.27.4.879 · Cited by 30
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“These oscillations can be induced by tasks involving the top-down integration of features, as for example, visual cognitive tasks using Kanizsa illusory features (Kanizsa, 1976).”
Background
Exploiting Illusory Grid Lines for Object-Location Memory Performance in Urban Topographic Maps
Dickmann, F., Edler, D., Bestgen, A.-K., et al. (2016) · The Cartographic Journal · doi:10.1080/00087041.2016.1236509 · Cited by 29
“Often cited textbook examples illustrating the effects of illusory line completion are the Kanizsa triangle (Kanizsa, 1976), Necker cube (Bradley and Petry, 1977) and the chomping pacman illusion (Halko et al ., 2008; see also Colman, 2015, p. 400).”
Background
A deficit of intermediate vision: Experimental observations and theoretical implications
Ricci, R., Vaishnavi, S., & Chatterjee, A. K. (1999) · Neurocase · doi:10.1080/13554799908404059 · Cited by 29
Stimulus Information and Processing Mechanisms in Visual Space Perception
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Perceptual organization of occluding contours
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Curvature Entropy for Curved Profile Generation
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The representation of Kanizsa illusory contours in the monkey inferior temporal cortex
Sáry, G., Köteles, K., Kaposvári, P., Lenti, L., Csifcsák, G., Frankó, E., Benedek, G., & Tompa, T. (2008) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2008.06499.x · Cited by 26
“In the present study we tested whether IT cortical neurones respond to shapes defined by the Kanizsa type (Kanizsa, 1976) ICs (KICs).”
MethodResult
Subjective contours 1900–1990: Research trends and bibliography
Purghé, F., & Coren, S. (1992) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03212255 · Cited by 27
Neon color spreading, partially delineated borders, and the formation of illusory contours
Day, R. H. (1983) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03203067 · Cited by 27
Brain mechanisms for perceiving illusory lines in humans
Anken, J., Tivadar, R. I., Knebel, J., & Murray, M. M. (2018) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.07.017 · Cited by 26
“This is because any neural responses to these other inducers should be treated independently of those to inducers resulting in an illusory contour (e.g. Kapadia et al., 1999 suggest that the horizontal connections within V1/V2 extend ~2° in macaque monkeys).”
Multiple forms of contour grouping deficits in schizophrenia: What is the role of spatial frequency?
Keane, B. P., Erlikhman, G., Kästner, S., Paterno, D., & Silverstein, S. M. (2014) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.10.031 · Cited by 27
“Keane et al. (2014) had subjects discriminate quartets of sectored circles that either formed or did not form illusory “Kanizsa” shapes (Kanizsa, 1976; Ringach and Shapley, 1996).”
Background
Windows of Integration Hypothesis Revisited
Hirschhorn, R., Kahane, O., Arie, I. G., Faivre, N., & Mudrik, L. (2021) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2020.617187 · Cited by 28
“Even with small SIWs, in studies of unconscious integration of a Kanizsa configuration (Kanizsa, 1976), integration was reported when using masking (Poscoliero et al., 2013, SIW: 1.5◦) but not under CFS (Moors et al., 2016b, SIW: 1.4◦).”
Influential
A Product Shape Design and Evaluation Model Based on Morphology Preference and Macroscopic Shape Information
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Tompa, T., & Sáry, G. (2009) · Brain Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2009.10.001 · Cited by 28
Visual illusions in the interpretation of the radiographic image
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Neural Computation of Surface Border Ownership and Relative Surface Depth from Ambiguous Contrast Inputs
Dresp, B., & Grossberg, S. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01102 · Cited by 25
“The great pioneering work of Kanizsa (1955,1976,1979,1985) on subjective contours provided many compelling examples of how illusory surfaces can be induced by spatially sparse, albeit (approximately) colinear, and co-oriented inducers, including examples of ﬁgure-ground separation.”
Everything is subjective under water surface, too: visual illusions in fish
Agrillo, C., Santacà, M., Pecunioso, A., & Petrazzini, M. E. M. (2020) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-019-01341-7 · Cited by 23
“The “Gestalt completion” hypothesis highlights the key role played by the illusory surface perception (Kanizsa 1976), whereas other authors argue that the formation of illusory contours is the consequence of the perception of brightness differences between the background and the illusory figure…”
Background
The Perception of Moving Subjective Contours by 4-Month-Old Infants
Kavšnek, M., & Yonas, A. (2006) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p5260 · Cited by 25
Flickering phantoms: A motion illusion without motion
Genter, C. R., & Weisstein, N. (1981) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/0042-6989(81)90202-9 · Cited by 25
Preattentive and cognitive effects on perceptual completion at the blind spot
Brown, R. J., & Thurmond, J. B. (1993) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03211730 · Cited by 25
The Perception of Movement and Depth in Moiré Patterns
Lothar Spillmann, A. (1993) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p220287 · Cited by 24
Determinants of the rod-and-frame effect: Role of organization and subjective contour
Streibel, M. J., Barnes, R. D., Julness, G. D., et al. (1980) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03204301 · Cited by 24
Mislocalization of a target toward subjective contours: attentional modulation of location signals
Yamada, Y., Kawabe, T., & Miura, K. (2007) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-007-0109-3 · Cited by 23
Gestalt grouping and common onset masking
Kahan, T. A., & Mathis, K. M. (2002) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03194769 · Cited by 23
Spatial extinction and its relation to mechanisms of normal attention
Mattingley, J. B. (2002) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198508335.003.0021 · Cited by 23
Subjective contours independent of subjective brightness
Ware, C. (1981) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03207364 · Cited by 23
EEG Findings of Reduced Neural Synchronization during Visual Integration in Schizophrenia
Wynn, J. K., Roach, B. J., Lee, J., Horan, W. P., Ford, J. M., Jimenez, A. M., & Green, M. F. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0119849 · Cited by 22
Subjective contours and apparent depth: A direct test
Coren, S., & Porac, C. (1983) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03202840 · Cited by 22
The effect of interpolation and perceptual difficulty on the visual potentials evoked by illusory figures
Brodeur, M. B., Leporé, F., & Debruille, J. B. (2005) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2005.10.064 · Cited by 22
The effects of perceptual set on the shape and apparent depth of subjective contours
Coren, S., Porac, C., & Theodor, L. H. (1986) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03202999 · Cited by 22
Subjective contours can facilitate performance in a reaction-time task
Pomerantz, J. R., Goldberg, D. M., Golder, P. S., et al. (1981) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03207379 · Cited by 22
Pattern recognition after image processing of low-contrast images, the case of the Shroud of Turin
Lazzaro, P. D., Murra, D., & Schwortz, B. (2013) · Pattern Recognition · doi:10.1016/j.patcog.2012.12.010 · Cited by 26
Physically Implied Surfaces
Little, P., & Firestone, C. (2021) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797620939942 · Cited by 20
Visual processing deficits in 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome
Biria, M., Tomescu, M. I., Custo, A., Cantonas, L.-M., Song, K.-W., Schneider, M., Murray, M. M., Eliez, S., Michel, C. M., & Rihs, T. A. (2017) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2017.12.028 · Cited by 21
“IC's have been related to an active process of “filling-in” of missing information in order to perceive a complete figure or Gestalt percept (law of closure; Kanizsa, 1976).”
Illusory Contours Do Not Pass through the “Blind Spot”
Maertens, M., & Pollmann, S. (2007) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.1.91 · Cited by 22
“There are situations in which our (healthy) brains create percepts even in the absence of a physically defined stimulus input (Kanizsa, 1976, Figure 1).”
Background
Perceptual asymmetry in texture perception.
Williams, D. W., & Julesz, B. (1992) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.89.14.6531 · Cited by 21
Feature mixing rather than feature replacement during perceptual filling-in
Hsieh, P., & Tse, P. U. (2009) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2008.12.004 · Cited by 19
Depth in objective and subjective contour patterns
Porac, C. (1978) · Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society · doi:10.3758/bf03336778 · Cited by 21
Illusory Line Linking Solid Rods
Ware, C., & Kennedy, J. M. (1977) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p060601 · Cited by 21
The Multiple Determination of Illusory Contours: 1. A Review
Halpern, D. F., & Salzman, B. (1983) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p120281 · Cited by 21
“Furthermore, Kanizsa (1976) and Weisstein and Maguire (1978) have demonstrated that figures with highly irregular shapes can be formed from illusory contours; this seems to argue against a closure mechanism that operates on regular and symmetrical figures.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Attentional modulations of the early and later stages of the neural processing of visual completion
Wu, X., Zhou, L. S., Qian, C. S., Gan, L., & Zhang, D. (2015) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep08346 · Cited by 20
Aesthetic Valence of Visual Illusions
Stevanov, J., Marković, S., & Kitaoka, A. (2012) · i-Perception · doi:10.1068/i0455aap · Cited by 20
“…Rotating Snakes illusion (Kitaoka 2005; Figure 2d), the Breathing Square illusion (Shiffrar and Pavel 1991; Figure 3a), the Kanizsa Square illusion (Kanizsa 1955, 1976; Figure 3b), the Luckiesh pattern (Luckiesh 1922; Figure 3c), the Marilyn–Einstein hybrid image (Oliva 2007; Oliva et al 2006;…”
Background
Perceptual Gains and Losses in Synesthesia and Schizophrenia
van Leeuwen, T. M., Sauer, A., Jurjut, A.-M., Wibral, M., Uhlhaas, P. J., Singer, W., & Melloni, L. (2020) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbaa162 · Cited by 18
“35 Illusory contour perception, strongly influenced by previous experience, is believed to rely on cortical NMDA(N-methyl-D-aspartate)-dependent feedback projections.”
Redundancy and Reducibility in the Formats of Spatial Representations
Yousif, S. R. (2022) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916221077115 · Cited by 20
“For example, work in vision science has tried to identify the format of shape representations that support object recognition (e.g., Biederman, 1987; Biederman & Bar, 1999; Kanizsa, 1976; Leyton, 1989).”
Background
Neural network model for completing occluded contours
Fukushima, K. (2009) · Neural Networks · doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2009.10.002 · Cited by 19
Intermanual Apparent Tactile Motion and Its Extension to 3D Interactions
Zhao, S., Israr, A., Fenner, M., et al. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Haptics · doi:10.1109/toh.2017.2678502 · Cited by 19
“This embedded knowledge supports the assumption that edges complete along straight lines or simple curves, which give rise to Kanizsa’s Triangle [3].”
Background
Sounds enhance visual completion processes
Tivadar, R. I., Retsa, C., Turoman, N., Matusz, P. J., & Murray, M. M. (2018) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.06.070 · Cited by 18
“Stimuli consisted of a set of 4 circular Kanizsa-type (Kanizsa, 1976) ‘pacman’ inducers that were arranged to either form an illusory contour or not (IC and NC conditions, respectively) (Figure 1).”
Differences in real and illusory shape perception revealed by backward masking
Imber, M. L., Shapley, R. M., & Rubin, N. (2004) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2004.07.034 · Cited by 19
“In attempts to dissect the complex computations that result in visual recognition of objects, researchers have studied a perceptual illusion known as the illusory contour (Kanizsa, 1955; Kanizsa, 1976; Petry & Meyer, 1987; Schumann, 1987), or IC.”
Background
Recurrent Long-Range Interactions in Early Vision
Hansen, T., Sepp, W., & Heiko Neumann, B. (2001) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-44597-8_9 · Cited by 19
Processing of visual illusions in the frequency and spatial domains
Becker, M. F., & Knopp, J. (1978) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03199529 · Cited by 19
The Multiple Determination of Illusory Contours: 2. An Empirical Investigation
Halpern, D. F., Salzman, B., Harrison, W., et al. (1983) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p120293 · Cited by 19
Hypermedia data modeling, coding, and semiotics
González, R. (1997) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/5.611118 · Cited by 19
“In the Kanizsa diagrams [123], white polygons are clearly perceived through visual interpolation even though they do not exist (Fig.”
No evidence for altered up- and downregulation of brain activity in visual cortex during illusory shape perception in autism
Utzerath, C., Schmits, I. C., Kok, P., Buitelaar, J. K., & de Lange, F. P. (2019) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2019.03.011 · Cited by 18
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Background
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Authors: Kanizsa, G.
Corresponding author: Kanizsa, Gaetano
Venue: Scientific American
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 1976-04
Volume: 234
Issue: 4
Pages: 48-52
ISSN: 0036-8733 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1038/scientificamerican0476-48
OpenAlex: W4251427381
Cited by: 503
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 19 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 12
FWCI: 3.95
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Scientific American (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Aesthetic Perception and Analysis
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
Keywords: illusory contours, visual perception, figure-ground perception, depth perception
MeSH terms: Form Perception, Humans, Illusions, Optical Illusions

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