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“In this section, we report some preliminary positive results that we obtained modeling the subjective contour effect in visual inference [63] using these circuits.”
From Towards a mathematical theory of cortical micro-circuits (2009) · cites this paper as [63]
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Rubin, J. J., & Kawahara, A. Y. (2023) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.15389 · Cited by 1
“1) (Kanizsa, 1976; Horridge, Zhang & O’Carroll, 1992; Davis & Driver, 1994; Wyzisk & Neumeyer, 2007; Mascalzoni & Regolin, 2011).”
Perception of illusory contours in children and adults: An eye-tracking study
Kavšek, M. (2023) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-023-02832-z · Cited by 1
“1a, the subjective Kanizsa square (Kanizsa, 1976), and Fig.”
BackgroundStirrat, T. P., Chang, M., Desai, A., et al. (2024) · Journal of Medical Imaging and Radiation Oncology · doi:10.1111/1754-9485.13810 · Cited by 1
“21 Background effects.”
InfluentialHokken, M. J., van der Zee, Y. J., Pereira, R. R., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2024.1496796 · Cited by 1
Split-brain patients: A clinical vs experimental perspective
Miller, M. B., Volz, L. J., Simonson, J. M., & Gazzaniga, M. S. (2025) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-15646-5.00015-4 · Cited by 1
Straight subjective contour detector
Rajaei, B., von Gioi, R. G., Facciola, G., et al. (2017) · International symposium on image and signal processing and analysis/ISPA ... · doi:10.1109/ispa.2017.8073592 · Cited by 1
“Figure 1 shows two Kanizsa-like example images, where the illusory (amodal) contours of a triangle and a square can be perceived [6].”
BackgroundA shape-level flanker facilitation effect in contour integration and the role of shape complexity
Gillespie, C., & Vishwanath, D. (2019) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2019.02.002 · Cited by 1
“…Keane, Hayward, & Burke, 2003; Rensink, O’Regan, & Clark, 1997), contour convexity/concavity (Bertamini & Wagemans, 2013; Huttenlocher & Wayner, 1992; Kanizsa, 1976; Koffka, 1935) and the shape aspect-ratio (Regan & Hamstra, 1992; Zusne & Michels, 1962a, 1962b) affect the detection of an object.”
Scintillating Starbursts: Concentric Star Polygons Induce Illusory Ray Patterns
Karlovich, M. W., & Wallisch, P. (2021) · i-Perception · doi:10.1177/20416695211018720 · Cited by 1
“We think that the reason the rays seems to sparkle—unlike classical illusory contours (Kanizsa, 1976)—is that central vision does have the resolution to tell that the luminance in the bisection centers is actually not brighter (Westheimer, 1982).”
BackgroundSchor, P., & Miller, D. A. B. (2011) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-05714-1.00001-7 · Cited by 1
Weibel, P., Leitner, B., Bajkay, É., et al. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/3-211-37846-4_2 · Cited by 1
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International Society of Neurofeedback and Research (2020) · NeuroRegulation · doi:10.15540/nr.7.4.173 · Cited by 1
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Istiqomah, N., TAKESHITA, T., Kinzuka, Y., et al. (2022) · International Symposium on Affective Science and Engineering · doi:10.5057/isase.2022-c000004 · Cited by 1
Neuro-ophthalmology: A Short Primer
Schwarz, U. (2005) · Medical radiology · doi:10.1007/3-540-27989-x_3 · Cited by 1
The law of perceptual stability: Well-definedness and validity
Shiman, L. G. (1978) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.75.5.2535 · Cited by 1
Three-Dimensional Illusory Objects Produced by Rotation in Depth
Kojo, I., Liinasuo, M., & Rovamo, J. M. (1994) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p230905 · Cited by 1
“physical luminance variation (Schumann 1900/1987; Kanizsa 1955/1987, 1976).”
BackgroundExploratory MEG Study of the Illusory Contour Perception: Positive and Inverted EffectsPreprint
Evina, E., Goyaeva, D., Pronko, P., & Chernyshev, B. (2013) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2209230 · Cited by 1
“A striking example of Gestalt phenomenon is the illusion of a “subjective contour” [Kanizsa, 1976].”
BackgroundSelective attention modulates surface filling-inPreprint
Harrison, W. J., Ayeni, A. J., & Bex, P. J. (2017) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/221150 · Cited by 1
Neural Dynamics of Form Perception: Boundary Completion, Illusory Figures, And Neon Color Spreading
Grossberg, S., & Mingolla, E. (1987) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)61758-6 · Cited by 1
Carnero-Sierra, S., & Navarro, A. D. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55065-7_1257 · Cited by 1
Cellular Morphometry in Transformation, Differentiation, and Aging
Parodi, S., Brambilla, G., Beltrame, F., et al. (1979) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-0976-5_15 · Cited by 1
Predictive coding in the brain and deep neural networks
Pang, Z. (2022) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/5be60358z52c8z491az8255z94b8974e0118 · Cited by 2
Form Constraints in Motion Integration, Segmentation and Selection
Lorenceau, J. (2006) · Kluwer Academic Publishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/1-4020-2081-3_8 · Cited by 1
Kaufmann, M. (2014) · Fuzzy management methods · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-05861-0_2
TriangleVision: A Toy Visual System
Bangert, T. (2008) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-87536-9_96
“In this way the colour of the inferred Kanizsa triangle may be seen to be whiter than white[8].”
BackgroundModel for Subjective Contour That Smoothly Connects Inducing Figures
Hirose, O., & Nagao, T. (2007) · The Journal of The Institute of Image Information and Television Engineers · doi:10.3169/itej.61.1496
Banno, H., Tanaka, T., & Sugie, N. (2003) · IEEJ Transactions on Electronics Information and Systems · doi:10.1541/ieejeiss.123.165
A triangle illusion with explanations
Lee, E. T., & Lee, M. E. (2000) · Kybernetes · doi:10.1108/03684920010312821
Organização espacial na percepção visual de luminosidade
Ribeiro, A. J. L., & de Souza, W. C. (2010) · Psicologia Teoria e Pesquisa · doi:10.1590/s0102-37722010000200009
Cooperative interactions between coincident segmentations: Some restrictions
Stalmeier, P. F. M. (1993) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/bf00419685
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Peacocke, R. D., & Mylopoulos, J. (1981) · Pattern Recognition · doi:10.1016/0031-3203(81)90003-0
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Takagi, H. (1999) · ENGLISH LINGUISTICS · doi:10.9793/elsj1984.16.104
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Kaufmann, M. (2015) · Informatik-Spektrum · doi:10.1007/s00287-015-0926-5
“1 Kanizsa (1976), Two Subjective Triangles, Copyright 1976 by Scientific American Abb.”
BackgroundSubjective Contours along Truncated Letters
Gillam, B., & Vecellio, E. (2012) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p7276
“Subjective contours have attracted great experimental and theoretical interest since Kanizsa’s versions became available during the 1970s (Kanizsa 1976).”
BackgroundSeeing Things That are Not There: Illusions Reveal How Our Brain Constructs What We See
Herrmann, C. S., & Murray, M. M. (2013) · Frontiers for Young Minds · doi:10.3389/frym.2013.00006
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吉野, 大. (2014) · Journal of the Visualization Society of Japan · doi:10.3154/jvs.34.20
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Kavšek, M., Waidhas, J., & Yonas, A. (2001) · Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1026//0049-8637.33.2.67
Complete contours formation via alignment interpretation of illusory edges
Liang, K.-C., Tseng, C., Wang, J.-H., et al. (2014) · IEEE International Workshop on Computational Intelligence and Applications (IWCIA) · doi:10.1109/iwcia.2014.6988086
“A striking example of illusory contours, which Kanizsa [7] described as subjective contours, is shown in Fig.”
BackgroundPrinciples of Oto-Neuro-Ophthalmology for Clinicians
Schwarz, U. (2004) · Rivista di Neuroradiologia · doi:10.1177/197140090401700321
Neuroreductionistic Dogma — A Heretical Counterview
Uttal, W. R. (1982) · Lecture notes in biomathematics · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-93199-4_11
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Röhler, R. (1995) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-79332-5_5
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Computer Graphics and CAD Literature A Keyword‐Indexed Bibliography
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Priming Deep Pedestrian Detection with Geometric Context
Chakraborty, I., & Hua, G. (2019) · Proceedings - IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/icra.2019.8794018
“Occlusion reasoning in humans is powered by an innate ability to perform “amodal completion” [20], i.”
BackgroundRomanyshyn, R. D. (1989) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-3802-4_1
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Luo, J., Chen, Z., Lu, Y., et al. (2020) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2020.612153
“The illusory contour separating the two gratings could be straight or curved depending on the shape of the grating pattern that produced it (Kanizsa, 1976, 1979).”
BackgroundWhere Does Attention Go When Facilitation is Absent?Preprint
MacInnes, W. J., & Bhatnagar, R. (2017) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3075751
Interference of Illusory Contour Perception by a Distractor
Yang, J., Sui, L., Wu, H., Wu, Q., Mei, X., & Wu, X. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.526972
“…of the visual system is to recognize objects even when object information is widely separated in space, as revealed by the well-known Kanizsa-type illusory contours (ICs) in which a contour is perceived despite the fragments of the contour being separated by gaps (Kanizsa, 1976; Figure 1A).”
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Perceptions, Imagery, Memory, and Consciousness in Man and Machine
Johnsson, M. (2022) · International Society for the Study of Information Summit (IS4SI Summit) · doi:10.3390/proceedings2022081132
“This is evident from various visual illusions, e.g., the Kanizsa Triangle [12], where the contours of a triangle can be perceived even though they are actually not there.”
BackgroundGallotto, S. (2021) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20210326sg
Carnero-Sierra, S., & Navarro, A. D. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_1257-1
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Perceptual integration modulates dissociable components of experience-driven attention
Jung, K., Han, S. W., & Min, Y. (2022) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-022-02203-z
“It has been demonstrated that PI is especially strong in the case of Kanizsa shapes (Kanizsa, 1976), which create vivid illusory contours.”
BackgroundHigashiyama, Y., Kuroki, M., Kudo, Y., Hamada, T., Morihara, K., Saito, A., Miyaji, Y., Kimura, K., Joki, H., Kishida, H., et al. (2023) · Brain Communications · doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcad053
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Distributed illusory figure-ground segmentation signatures across the dorsal and ventral streamsPreprint
Arsenovic, A., Ischebeck, A. K., & Zaretskaya, N. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.11.01.565170
How to objectively quantify a subjective phenomenon: The case of Flashed Face Distortion EffectPreprint
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Gao, Y., Wang, M., & Rahnev, D. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4764129
Mash, C., Henry, L. M., & Bornstein, M. H. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5025282
Perpetual rotation of real and illusory shapes
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Right Parietal rTMS Induces Bidirectional Effects of Selective Attention upon Object Integration
Conci, M., Nowack, L., Taylor, P. C. J., Finke, K., & Müller, H. J. (2025) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci15050483
“One famous example that illustrates such object integration processes is the “Kanizsa figure” ([1]; see Figure 1), which depicts several aligned “pacmen” inducer elements that are grouped, thereby leading to the emergence of an illusory figure (e.g., a diamond or triangle) while lacking a…”
The neural processes of illusory occlusion in object recognition
Ramírez-Haro, A., Moerel, D., Quek, G. L., Varlet, M., & Grootswagers, T. (2026) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/jov.26.8.4
“The grouping mechanism in the brain results in the perception of illusory contours, such as in Kanizsa figures, which are a result of arranging Pacman shapes in a way that induces the illusion of a figure without real contours (Kanizsa, 1976).”
Development of the Visual Analysis of Form and Contour
Mash, C., Henry, L. M., & Bornstein, M. H. (2025) · Children · doi:10.3390/children12081005
“The Kanizsa square [3], one of the most notable examples of ICs, consists of figures arranged to suggest the presence of a square (see Figure 1B).”
Vertex Characterization Via Second-Order Topological Derivatives
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“This problem has been approached inthepsychologyliteraturesuchasClowes[14],Kanizsa[25] and Cavanagh [13] and also in the vision literature, see, e.g., Nitzberg et al. [31], among others.”
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“BO can be generated even in the absence of explicit disparity, as in illusory contours and Kanizsa figures (Kanizsa 1976; Von der Heydt et al., 1984; Chen et al., 2025).”
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Lazzaro, P. D. (2026) · Human Arenas · doi:10.1007/s42087-026-00571-9
“In the literature, this phenomenon is referred to as ‘subjective contours’ (Kanizsa, 1976).”
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“From left to right : illusory contours for inferring edges [13]; checker shadow illusion for inferring contrast [14]; Ebbinghaus illusion for inferring size [15]; and McGurk effect for inferring sound based on audio-visual multi-sensory inputs [16] one-sided assessment of the capacity for…”
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Feedback to deep layers in human V1 during perceptual filling-inPreprint
Koiso, K., Razafindrahaba, A., van de Ven, V. G., Roberts, M. J., Martino, F. D., & Weerd, P. D. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.04.17.719145
Huang, Z., Dekker, T. M., Crutch, S. J., Yong, K. X. X., & Greenwood, J. A. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.05.18.725904
A biological vision inspired framework for machine perception of illusory contours
Zhang, X., Yang, K.-F., Zhang, X.-S., You, H.-Z., Yan, H.-M., & Li, Y.-J. (2026) · Pattern Recognition · doi:10.1016/j.patcog.2026.114185
Domijan, D. (2026) · Neuroscience of Consciousness · doi:10.1093/nc/niag025
“ICs are an example of the pattern completion that fills in missing pieces of evidence for the existence of a particular shape in the input image ( Kanizsa 1976).”
Rich Experience and Sparse Awareness
berlinger, A., & Eitam, B. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009757126
Dynamic illusory waves generated by relative motion in periodic displays
Thornton, I. M., Zdravković, S., Riga, A., et al. (2026) · i-Perception · doi:10.1177/20416695261468555
“The modal surfaces that emerge in the illusory waves display are almost certainly variants of those described by Ehrenstein (1941/1987) and Kanizsa (1955/1987, 1976).”
Wahrnehmung und Aufmerksamkeit
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A visual-neural network for specific objects-of-interest inpainting
Wu, Y., Wang, R., Wu, K., Liu, C., Filaretov, V. F., & Yukhimets, D. (2026) · Machine Vision and Applications · doi:10.1007/s00138-026-01873-2
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Li, S., Zhang, B., Pan, J., et al. (2026) · Journal of the Franklin Institute · doi:10.1016/j.jfranklin.2026.109028
Metadata
- Authors
- Kanizsa, G.
- Corresponding author
- Kanizsa, Gaetano
- Venue
- Scientific American
- Published
- 1976-04
- Volume
- 234
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 48-52
- ISSN
- 0036-8733 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4251427381
- Cited by
- 503
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 3.95
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Scientific American (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Aesthetic Perception and Analysis
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
- Keywords
- illusory contours, visual perception, figure-ground perception, depth perception
- MeSH terms
- Form Perception, Humans, Illusions, Optical Illusions
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