Machine learning to tame divergent density functional approximations: a new path to consensus materials design principles
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Machine learning (ML)-based feature analysis reveals universal design rules regardless of density functional choices. Using the consensus among multiple functionals, we identify robust lead complexes in ML-accelerated chemical discovery.
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By applying random forest-ranked recursive feature addition to KRR models, expected heuristics have been reinforced by feature selection approaches, such as the spin splitting of a complex being strongly dependent on the metal-local electronic environment.
“By applying random forest-ranked recursive feature addition to KRR models, expected heuristics have been reinforced by feature selection approaches (22,32,105), such as the spin splitting of a complex being strongly dependent on the metal-local electronic environment (e.g., from the electronegativities of surrounding atoms; Figure 5)”
From Machine Learning for the Discovery, Design, and Engineering of Materials. (2022) · cites this paper as [105]
Conversely, other properties, such as the frontier orbital energies, band gap, or ionization/redox potential, depend much more on the global structure of the molecule.
“Conversely, other properties, such as the frontier orbital energies (22), band gap (44, 105), or ionization/redox potential (32,52), depend much more on the global structure of the molecule (Figure 5).”
From Machine Learning for the Discovery, Design, and Engineering of Materials. (2022) · cites this paper as [105]
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Shu, Y., & Levine, B. G. (2015) · The Journal of Chemical Physics · doi:10.1063/1.4914294 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Walker, E. A., Mitchell, D., Terejanu, G., & Heyden, A. (2018) · ACS Catalysis · doi:10.1021/acscatal.7b03531 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Huo, P., Uyeda, C., Goodpaster, J. D., Peters, J. C., & Miller, T. F. (2016) · ACS Catalysis · doi:10.1021/acscatal.6b01387 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Zhang, D., & Truhlar, D. G. (2020) · Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation · doi:10.1021/acs.jctc.0c00518 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Ligand-Field-Dependent Behavior of Meta-GGA Exchange in Transition-Metal Complex Spin-State Ordering
Ioannidis, E. I., & Kulik, H. J. (2017) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry A · doi:10.1021/acs.jpca.6b11930 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citationLiu, F., Duan, C., & Kulik, H. J. (2020) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters · doi:10.1021/acs.jpclett.0c02288 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Self-citationNavigating Transition-Metal Chemical Space: Artificial Intelligence for First-Principles Design
Janet, J. P., Duan, C., Nandy, A., Liu, F., & Kulik, H. J. (2021) · Accounts of Chemical Research · doi:10.1021/acs.accounts.0c00686 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Self-citationBridging the Homogeneous-Heterogeneous Divide: Modeling Spin for Reactivity in Single Atom Catalysis
Liu, F., Yang, T., Yang, J., Xu, E. Y., Bajaj, A., & Kulik, H. J. (2019) · Frontiers in Chemistry · doi:10.3389/fchem.2019.00219 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Self-citationPutting Density Functional Theory to the Test in Machine-Learning-Accelerated Materials Discovery
Duan, C., Liu, F., Nandy, A., & Kulik, H. J. (2021) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters · doi:10.1021/acs.jpclett.1c00631 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Self-citationData-Driven Approaches Can Overcome the Cost–Accuracy Trade-Off in Multireference Diagnostics
Duan, C., Liu, F., Nandy, A., & Kulik, H. J. (2020) · Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation · doi:10.1021/acs.jctc.0c00358 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citationComputational Investigation and Design of Cobalt Aqua Complexes for Homogeneous Water Oxidation
Schilling, M., Patzke, G. R., Hutter, J., & Luber, S. (2016) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry C · doi:10.1021/acs.jpcc.6b00712 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Spin‐State Energetics of Fe Complexes from an Optimally Tuned Range‐Separated Hybrid Functional
Prokopiou, G., & Kronik, L. (2017) · Chemistry - A European Journal · doi:10.1002/chem.201704014 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Yu, H. S., He, X. D., Li, S. L., & Truhlar, D. G. (2016) · Chemical Science · doi:10.1039/c6sc90044e · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Enumeration of <i>de novo</i> inorganic complexes for chemical discovery and machine learning
Gugler, S., Janet, J. P., & Kulik, H. J. (2020) · Molecular Systems Design & Engineering · doi:10.1039/c9me00069k · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Self-citationHow Large is the Elephant in the Density Functional Theory Room?
Jensen, F. (2017) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry A · doi:10.1021/acs.jpca.7b04760 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Spin-state diversity in a series of Co( ii ) PNP pincer bromide complexes
Shaffer, D. W., Bhowmick, I., Rheingold, A. L., Tsay, C., Livesay, B. N., Shores, M. P., & Yang, J. Y. (2016) · Dalton Transactions · doi:10.1039/c6dt03461f · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Wilbraham, L., Adamo, C., & Ciofini, I. (2018) · The Journal of Chemical Physics · doi:10.1063/1.5019641 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Duan, C., Liu, F., Nandy, A., & Kulik, H. J. (2020) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters · doi:10.1021/acs.jpclett.0c02018 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationMethod Calibration or Data Fitting?
Jensen, F. (2018) · Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation · doi:10.1021/acs.jctc.8b00477 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Veccham, S. P., & Head‐Gordon, M. (2020) · Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation · doi:10.1021/acs.jctc.0c00292 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Rational Density Functional Selection Using Game Theory
McAnanama-Brereton, S. R., & Waller, M. P. (2017) · Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling · doi:10.1021/acs.jcim.7b00542 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Feller, D. F., & Dixon, D. A. (2018) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry A · doi:10.1021/acs.jpca.8b00392 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Accurate Hybrid Density Functionals with UW12 Correlation
Williams, Z., Wiles, T. C., & Manby, F. R. (2020) · Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation · doi:10.1021/acs.jctc.0c00442 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Simple Automatized Tool for Exchange–Correlation Functional Fitting
Mitrofanov, A. A., Korolev, V., Andreadi, N., Petrov, V. G., & Kalmykov, S. N. (2020) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry A · doi:10.1021/acs.jpca.9b09093 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
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Nandy, A., Duan, C., & Kulik, H. J. (2021) · Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.coche.2021.100778 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Self-citationMachine Learning for the Discovery, Design, and Engineering of Materials.
Duan, C., Nandy, A., & Kulik, H. J. (2022) · Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering · doi:10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-092320-120230 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Self-citationUnlocking the computational design of metal–organic cages
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Duan, C., Nandy, A., Terrones, G., Kastner, D. W., & Kulik, H. J. (2022) · JACS Au · doi:10.1021/jacsau.2c00547 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationMultireference Methods are Realistic and Useful Tools for Modeling Catalysis
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Rasmussen, M. H., Duan, C., Kulik, H. J., & Jensen, J. H. (2023) · Journal of Cheminformatics · doi:10.1186/s13321-023-00790-0 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationDuan, C., Nandy, A., Meyer, R., Arunachalam, N., & Kulik, H. J. (2022) · Nature Computational Science · doi:10.1038/s43588-022-00384-0 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
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Self-citationAutomated Transition Metal Catalysts Discovery and Optimisation with AI and Machine Learning
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Duan, C., Chu, D. B. K., Nandy, A., & Kulik, H. J. (2022) · Chemical Science · doi:10.1039/d2sc00393g · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationAdapting hybrid density functionals with machine learning
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Identifying and embedding transferability in data-driven representations of chemical space
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Varadwaj, P. R., Varadwaj, A., Marques, H. M., & Yamashita, K. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23031263 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Identifying Underexplored and Untapped Regions in the Chemical Space of Transition Metal Complexes
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Self-citationBarriers to predictive high-throughput screening for spin-crossover
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Ariyarathna, I. R., Duan, C., & Kulik, H. J. (2022) · The Journal of Chemical Physics · doi:10.1063/5.0090128 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
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A study on ship hull form transformation using convolutional autoencoder
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Multitask methods for predicting molecular properties from heterogeneous data
Fisher, K. E., Herbst, M. F., & Marzouk, Y. (2024) · The Journal of Chemical Physics · doi:10.1063/5.0201681 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Gas-phase and solid-state electronic structure analysis and DFT benchmarking of HfCO
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Self-citationHarper, D. R., & Kulik, H. J. (2022) · Inorganic Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.inorgchem.1c03376 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationMachine Learning Frontier Orbital Energies of Nanodiamonds
Kirschbaum, T., von Seggern, B., Dzubiella, J., Bande, A., & Noé, F. (2023) · Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation · doi:10.1021/acs.jctc.2c01275 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Kulik, H. J. (2025) · Journal of materials research/Pratt's guide to venture capital sources · doi:10.1557/s43578-025-01568-w · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationForce-Activated Spin-Crossover in Fe 2+ and Co 2+ Transition Metal Mechanophores
Huang, X., Kevlishvili, I., Craig, S. L., & Kulik, H. J. (2024) · Inorganic Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.inorgchem.4c04732 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationLiu, Y., Sulaiman, H. F., Johnson, B. R., Ma, R., Gao, Y., Fernando, H., Amarasekara, A. S., Ashley-Oyewole, A., Fan, H., Ingram, H. N., et al. (2023) · Computational Biology and Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.compbiolchem.2023.107810 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Cytter, Y., Nandy, A., Duan, C., & Kulik, H. J. (2023) · Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics · doi:10.1039/d3cp00258f · Cited by 5 · see citing works
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Hung, S.-H., Ye, Z.-R., Cheng, C., Yang, A.-C., Chen, B., & Tsai, M. (2025) · Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation · doi:10.1021/acs.jctc.5c00085 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Garrison, A. G., & Kulik, H. J. (2026) · Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation · doi:10.1021/acs.jctc.5c01833 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Kulik, H. J. (2025) · APL Computational Physics · doi:10.1063/5.0297853 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationGarrison, A. G., Toney, J., Nikolaeva, T., Michel, R. G. S., Stein, C. J., & Kulik, H. J. (2026) · Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling · doi:10.1021/acs.jcim.6c01792 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationMany-body expansion based machine learning models for octahedral transition metal complexes
Meyer, R., Chu, D. B. K., & Kulik, H. J. (2024) · Machine Learning Science and Technology · doi:10.1088/2632-2153/ad9f22 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationIncorporating Anionic Ligands in Chemical Space Exploration with New Ligand Additivity Relationships
Kulik, H. J. (2025) · Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling · doi:10.1021/acs.jcim.5c00636 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationLee, S., & Kim, H. W. (2025) · Advanced Theory and Simulations · doi:10.1002/adts.202500133 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Learning Design Rules for Catalysts Through Computational Chemistry and Machine Learning
Nandy, A., & Kulik, H. J. (2024) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9783527843435.ch20 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationJanet, J. P. (2022) · ACS symposium series · doi:10.1021/bk-2022-1416.ch007
Rasmussen, M. H., Duan, C., Kulik, H. J., & Jensen, J. H. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26655709
Self-citationA Review on the Application of Machine Learning in Nitrogen Reduction Reaction
Kannan, B., Chandrasekaran, S., Sagadevan, V., & Dhanushkodi, S. R. (2026) · ChemistrySelect · doi:10.1002/slct.74100
- Authors
- Duan, C., Chen, S., Taylor, M. G., Liu, F., & Kulik, H. J.
- Affiliations
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kulik, Heather J.
- Venue
- Chemical Science
- Publisher
- Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC)
- Published
- 2021
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 39
- Pages
- 13021-13036
- ISSN
- 2041-6520 (ISSN-L)
- 2041-6539
- PMC
- PMC8513898
- OpenAlex
- W3196375544
- Cited by
- 40
- References
- 127
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 1
- FWCI
- 2.28
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Chemical Science (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Office of Naval Research (N00014-17-1-2956, N00014-18-1-2434, N00014-20-1-2150)
- Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DE18AP00039)
- U.S. Department of Energy (DE-SC0018096, DE-SC0012702)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Machine Learning in Materials Science
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Advanced Chemical Physics Studies
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computational Theory and Mathematics › Computational Drug Discovery Methods
- Keywords
- density functional approximations, machine learning, transition metal compounds, artificial neural networks, computational materials discovery
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