The DOI matches its Crossref record; 42 of the 44 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The methodology of TSPO imaging with positron emission tomography
Open accessAbstract
The 18-kDA translocator protein (TSPO) is consistently elevated in activated microglia of the central nervous system (CNS) in response to a variety of insults as well as neurodegenerative and psychiatric conditions. It is therefore a target of interest for molecular strategies aimed at imaging neuroinflammation in vivo. For more than 20 years, positron emission tomography (PET) has allowed the imaging of TSPO density in brain using [11C]-(R)-PK11195, a radiolabelled-specific antagonist of the TSPO that has demonstrated microglial activation in a large number pathological cohorts. The significant clinical interest in brain immunity as a primary or comorbid factor in illness has sparked great interest in the TSPO as a biomarker and a surprising number of second generation TSPO radiotracers have been developed aimed at improving the quality of TSPO imaging through novel radioligands with higher affinity. However, such major investment has not yet resulted in the expected improvement in image quality. We here review the main methodological aspects of TSPO PET imaging with particular attention to TSPO genetics, cellular heterogeneity of TSPO in brain tissue and TSPO distribution in blood and plasma that need to be considered in the quantification of PET data to avoid spurious results as well as ineffective development and use of these radiotracers.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“One of the earliest TSPO PET tracers is [11C]PK11195, still routinely used in clinical imaging but hampered by the poor signal-to-noise ratio arising from its low binding affinity [16, 17].”
From Pharmacological modulation of TSPO in microglia/macrophages and neurons in a chronic neurodegenerative model of prion disease (2023) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“These discrepancies have been attributed to the difference in ligand types, off-target binding (such as the vascular endothelial cells), uneven distribution of the radioactive ligand in the brain parenchyma, and tissue-dependent differences in ligand affinity (Suridjan et al, 2014;Turkheimer et al, 2015).”
From Microglia Priming with Aging and Stress (2017) · cites this paper as Turkheimer et al, 2015
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Common variants conferring risk of schizophrenia
†Genetic Risk and Outcome in Psychosis (GROUP), Stefansson, H., Ophoff, R. A., Steinberg, S., Andreassen, O. A., Cichon, S., Rujescu, D., Werge, T., Pietiläinen, O. P. H., Mors, O., et al. (2009) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature08186 · Cited by 1,677
In vivo imaging of microglial activation with [11C](R)-PK11195 PET in idiopathic Parkinson's disease
Gerhard, A., Pavese, N., Hotton, G., Turkheimer, F., Es, M., Hammers, A., Eggert, K., Oertel, W., Banati, R. B., & Brooks, D. J. (2006) · Neurobiology of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2005.08.002 · Cited by 1,200
Self-citationIn-vivo measurement of activated microglia in dementia
Cagnin, A., Brooks, D. J., Kennedy, A. M., Gunn, R. N., Myers, R., Turkheimer, F. E., Jones, T., & Banati, R. B. (2001) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(01)05625-2 · Cited by 1,054
Self-citationInflammation after trauma: Microglial activation and traumatic brain injury
Ramlackhansingh, A. F., Brooks, D. J., Greenwood, R. J., Bose, S. K., Turkheimer, F. E., Kinnunen, K. M., Gentleman, S., Heckemann, R. A., Gunanayagam, K., Gelosa, G., et al. (2011) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.22455 · Cited by 999
Self-citationOwen, D. R., Yeo, A. J., Gunn, R. N., Song, K., Wadsworth, G., Lewis, A., Rhodes, C., Pulford, D. J., Bennacef, I., Parker, C. A., et al. (2012) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1038/jcbfm.2011.147 · Cited by 779
Turner, M. R., Cagnin, A., Turkheimer, F. E., Miller, C. C. J., Shaw, C. E., Brooks, D. J., Leigh, P. N., & Banati, R. B. (2004) · Neurobiology of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2003.12.012 · Cited by 737
Self-citationThe peripheral benzodiazepine binding site in the brain in multiple sclerosis
Banati, R. B., Newcombe, J., Gunn, R. N., Cagnin, A., Turkheimer, F., Heppner, F., Price, G., Wegner, F., Giovannoni, G., Miller, D. H., et al. (2000) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/123.11.2321 · Cited by 661
Self-citationvan Berckel, B. N. M., Bossong, M. G., Boellaard, R., Kloet, R. W., Schuitemaker, A., Caspers, E., Luurtsema, G., Windhorst, A. D., Cahn, W., Lammertsma, A. A., et al. (2008) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.04.025 · Cited by 582
Neuroinflammation in Schizophrenia-Related Psychosis: A PET Study
Doorduin, J., de Vries, E. F. J., Willemsen, A. T. M., de Groot, J. C., Dierckx, R., & Klein, H. C. (2009) · Journal of Nuclear Medicine · doi:10.2967/jnumed.109.066647 · Cited by 561
Edison, P., Archer, H. A., Gerhard, A., Hinz, R., Pavese, N., Turkheimer, F. E., Hammers, A., Tai, Y. F., Fox, N., Kennedy, A., et al. (2008) · Neurobiology of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2008.08.001 · Cited by 513
Self-citationCytokines and schizophrenia: microglia hypothesis of schizophrenia
Monji, A., Kato, T., & Kanba, S. (2009) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/j.1440-1819.2009.01945.x · Cited by 508
Microglial activation correlates with severity in Huntington disease: A clinical and PET study
Pavese, N., Gerhard, A., Tai, Y. F., Ho, A. K., Turkheimer, F., Barker, R. A., Brooks, D. J., & Piccini, P. (2006) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000222734.56412.17 · Cited by 462
Self-citationBloomfield, P. S., Selvaraj, S., Veronese, M., Rizzo, G., Bertoldo, A., Owen, D. R., Bloomfield, M., Bonoldi, I., Kalk, N. J., Turkheimer, F., et al. (2015) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.14101358 · Cited by 446
Self-citationNuclear imaging of neuroinflammation: a comprehensive review of [11C]PK11195 challengers
Chauveau, F., Boutin, H., Camp, N. V., Dollé, F., & Tavitian, B. (2008) · European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging · doi:10.1007/s00259-008-0908-9 · Cited by 419
Microglial activation and amyloid deposition in mild cognitive impairment: A PET study
Okello, A., Edison, P., Archer, H. A., Turkheimer, F. E., Kennedy, J., Bullock, R., Walker, Z., Kennedy, A., Fox, N., Rossor, M., et al. (2009) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000338622.27876.0d · Cited by 367
Self-citationPeripheral Type Benzodiazepine Receptors
Verma, A. M., & Snyder, S. H. (1989) · The Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology · doi:10.1146/annurev.pa.29.040189.001515 · Cited by 291
Reference and target region modeling of [11C]-(R)-PK11195 brain studies.
Turkheimer, F., Edison, P., Pavese, N., Roncaroli, F., Anderson, A. N., Hammers, A., Gerhard, A., Hinz, R., Tai, Y., & Brooks, D. J. (2007) · PubMed · Cited by 275
Self-citation[ 11 C]( R )-PK11195 PET imaging of microglial activation in multiple system atrophy
Gerhard, A., Banati, R. B., Goerres, G. B., Cagnin, A., Myers, R., Gunn, R. N., Turkheimer, F., Good, C. D., Mathias, C. J., Quinn, N. P., et al. (2003) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000078192.95645.e6 · Cited by 247
Self-citationNoninvasive Molecular Imaging of Neuroinflammation
Jacobs, A. H., Tavitian, B., & the INMiND consortium (2012) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1038/jcbfm.2012.53 · Cited by 245
Microglia as modulators of cognition and neuropsychiatric disorders
Blank, T., & Prinz, M. (2012) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.22372 · Cited by 195
Dodel, R. C., Spottke, A. E., Gerhard, A., Reuß, A., Reinecker, S., Schimke, N., Trenkwalder, C., Sixel‐Döring, F., Herting, B., Kamm, C., et al. (2009) · Movement Disorders · doi:10.1002/mds.22732 · Cited by 187
Self-citationMyers, R., Manjil, L. G., Cullen, B. M., Price, G. W., Frackowiak, R. S. J., & Cremer, J. E. (1991) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1038/jcbfm.1991.64 · Cited by 182
Kenk, M., Selvanathan, T., Rao, N. P., Suridjan, I., Rusjan, P., Remington, G. J., Meyer, J. H., Wilson, A. A., Houle, S., & Mizrahi, R. (2014) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbu157 · Cited by 172
Yaqub, M. M., van Berckel, B. N. M., Schuitemaker, A., Hinz, R., Turkheimer, F., Tomasi, G., Lammertsma, A. A., & Boellaard, R. (2012) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1038/jcbfm.2012.59 · Cited by 161
Self-citationMinocycline as Adjunctive Therapy for Schizophrenia: An Open-Label Study
Miyaoka, T., Yasukawa, R., Yasuda, H., Hayashida, M., Inagaki, T., & Horiguchi, J. (2008) · Clinical Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1097/wnf.0b013e3181593d45 · Cited by 146
In vivo imaging of microglial activation with [11C](R)‐PK11195 PET in corticobasal degeneration
Gerhard, A., Watts, J., Trender‐Gerhard, I., Turkheimer, F., Banati, R. B., Bhatia, K. P., & Brooks, D. J. (2004) · Movement Disorders · doi:10.1002/mds.20162 · Cited by 145
Self-citationCharbonneau, P., Syrota, A., Crouzel, C., Valois, J. M., Prenant, C., & Crouzel, M. (1986) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/01.cir.73.3.476 · Cited by 130
Monitoring by PET of macrophage accumulation in brain after ischaemic stroke
Ramsay, S. C., Weiller, C., Myers, R., Cremer, J. E., Luthra, S. K., Lammertsma, A. A., & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1992) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/0140-6736(92)90576-o · Cited by 124
Rizzo, G., Veronese, M., Tonietto, M., Zanotti-Fregonara, P., Turkheimer, F. E., & Bertoldo, A. (2014) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1038/jcbfm.2014.55 · Cited by 121
Self-citationPappatà, S., Cornu, P., Samson, Y., Prenant, C., Bénavidès, J., Scatton, B., Crouzel, C., Hauw, J., & Syrota, A. (1991) · PubMed · Cited by 116
Lockhart, A., Davis, B., Matthews, J. C., Rahmoune, H., Hong, G., Gee, A. D., Earnshaw, D. L., & Brown, J. (2003) · Nuclear Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1016/s0969-8051(02)00410-9 · Cited by 105
Tomasi, G., Edison, P., Bertoldo, A., Roncaroli, F., Singh, P., Gerhard, A., Cobelli, C., Brooks, D. J., & Turkheimer, F. E. (2008) · Journal of Nuclear Medicine · doi:10.2967/jnumed.108.050583 · Cited by 97
Self-citationLaskowski, C. J., & Bradke, F. (2012) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2012.07.007 · Cited by 82
Concept of reaction volume in the in vivo ligand-receptor model.
Delforge, J., Syrota, A., & Bendriem, B. (1996) · PubMed · Cited by 56
Pini, S., Martini, C., Abelli, M., Muti, M., Gesi, C., Montali, M., Chelli, B., Lucacchini, A., & Cassano, G. B. (2005) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-005-2247-x · Cited by 51
Soreni, N., Apter, A. S., Weizman, A., Don-Tufeled, O., Leschiner, S., Karp, L., & Gavish, M. (1999) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(98)00342-4 · Cited by 43
Anderson, A. N., Pavese, N., Edison, P., Tai, Y., Hammers, A., Gerhard, A., Brooks, D. J., & Turkheimer, F. (2007) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.02.017 · Cited by 42
Self-citationRitsner, M. S., Modai, I., Gibel, A., Leschiner, S., Silver, H., Tsinovoy, G., Weizman, A., & Gavish, M. (2003) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/s0022-3956(03)00055-4 · Cited by 41
Converse, A. K., Larsen, E. C., Engle, J. W., Barnhart, T. E., Nickles, R. J., & Duncan, I. D. (2011) · Journal of Nuclear Medicine · doi:10.2967/jnumed.110.082743 · Cited by 29
Takaya, S., Hashikawa, K., Turkheimer, F., Mottram, N., Deprez, M., Ishizu, K., Kawashima, H., Akiyama, H., Fukuyama, H., Banati, R. B., et al. (2007) · Journal of Neuro-Oncology · doi:10.1007/s11060-007-9396-1 · Cited by 26
Self-citationMartini, C., Chelli, B., Betti, L., Montali, M., Mancuso, M., Giannaccini, G., Rocchi, A., Murri, L., & Siciliano, G. (2002) · Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1007/bf03402089 · Cited by 15
Begni, B., Tremolizzo, L., Andreoni, S., Contri, M., Uccellini, O., Neri, F., & Ferrarese, C. (2009) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2009.07.002 · Cited by 11
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Microglia in neurodegenerative diseases: mechanism and potential therapeutic targets
Gao, C., Jiang, J., Tan, Y., & Chen, S. (2023) · Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy · doi:10.1038/s41392-023-01588-0 · Cited by 1,616
Parkinson disease and the immune system - Associations, mechanisms and therapeutics
Tan, E.-K., Chao, Y.-X., West, A., Chan, L.-L., Poewe, W., & Jankovic, J. (2020) · Nature Reviews Neurology · doi:10.1038/s41582-020-0344-4 · Cited by 457
Microglia Priming with Aging and Stress
Niraula, A., Sheridan, J. F., & Godbout, J. P. (2017) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2016.185 · Cited by 398
Jesulola, E., Micalos, P., & Baguley, I. J. (2018) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2017.12.025 · Cited by 379
Inflammation and the neural diathesis-stress hypothesis of schizophrenia: a reconceptualization
Howes, O. D., & McCutcheon, R. (2017) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/tp.2016.278 · Cited by 288
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Turkheimer, F. E., Rizzo, G., Bloomfield, P. S., Howes, O., Zanotti-Fregonara, P., Bertoldo, A., & Veronese, M.
- Affiliations
- King's College London (GB)
- University of Padua (IT)
- Imperial College London (GB)
- University of Bordeaux, CNRS, INCIA, UMR 5287, France
- Corresponding author
- Howes, Oliver
- Veronese, Mattia
- ORCID
- Venue
- Biochemical Society Transactions
- Publisher
- Portland Press Ltd.
- Published
- 2015-08-01
- Volume
- 43
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 586-592
- ISSN
- 0300-5127 (ISSN-L)
- 1470-8752
- PMC
- PMC4613512
- OpenAlex
- W2121010289
- Cited by
- 238
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 31 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 37 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 3
- FWCI
- 2.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Biochemical Society Transactions (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion)
- Padua Research Archive (University of Padova) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Medical Imaging Techniques and Applications
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry and Applications
- Keywords
- translocator protein (TSPO), TSPO PET imaging, microglial activation, neuroinflammation, [11C]PK11195, PET quantification, brain immunity, neurodegenerative diseases, mental illness
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Isoquinolines, Microglia, Receptors, GABA, Positron-Emission Tomography
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
