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Maternal education and measures of early speech and language.
Abstract
The present study was designed to determine whether 4 measures of children's spontaneous speech and language differed according to the educational level of the children's mothers. Spontaneous language samples from 240 three-year-old children were analyzed to determine mean length of utterance in morphemes (MLUm), number of different words (NDW), total number of words (TNW), and percentage of consonants correct (PCC). A norm-referenced, knowledge-dependent measure of language comprehension, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R), was also included for purposes of comparison with the spontaneous measures. Three levels of maternal education were compared: less than high school graduate, high school graduate, and college graduate. Trend analyses showed statistically significant linear trends across educational levels for MLUm, NDW, TNW, and PPVT-R; the trend for PCC was not significant. The relationship of maternal education and other sociodemographic variables to measures of children's language should be examined before using such measures to identify children with language disorders.
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“socioeconomic disparities are associated with children ' s language skills 9,27 as well as parental behaviors such as linguistic input and sensitivity. 28,29”
From Parenting Behavior and Child Language: A Meta-analysis. (2019) · cites this paper as [27]
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“…that children from lower SES build their vocabularies at slower rates than children from higher SES (Arriaga, Fenson, Cronan, & Pethick, 1998; Dollaghan et al., 1999; Feldman et al., 2000; Hart & Risley, 1995; Hoff, in press; Morrisset, Barnard, Greenberg, Booth, & Spieker, 1990; Rescorla,…”
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HOFF, E. (2006) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2005.11.002 · Cited by 1,853
“…speech, maternal report measures, and standardized tests show similar findings, with the magnitude of the SES-related differences depending on the range of SES in the sample studied (Arriaga, Fenson, Cronan, & Pethick, 1998; Dollaghan et al., 1999; Pan, Rowe, Singer, & Snow, 2005; Rescorla, 1989).”
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“Higher SES children outperform lower SES children on standardized language tests that include measures of grammatical development (Dollaghan et al., 1999; Morisset, Barnard, Greenberg, Booth, & Spieker, 1990); they produce more complex utterances and use a greater variety of syntactic structures in…”
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“Children whose mothers have completed more years of education, especially beyond high school, perform better on tests of achievement than children whose mothers have completed fewer years (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002; Dollaghan et al., 1999).”
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“We also demonstrated moderate effects of maternal education and the related variable income, as consistent with a large literature linking maternal education and other socio-economic variables with the amount and type of vocabulary input children receive (Dollaghan et al. 1999, Hoff 2003).”
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Yoshinaga‐Itano, C., Sedey, A. L., Wiggin, M., & Mason, C. A. (2018) · Otology & Neurotology · doi:10.1097/mao.0000000000001976 · Cited by 188
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“This was done because there is evidence that income level and maternal education are risk factors for language development (Dollaghan et al., 1999; Jewkes, 2005; Payne, Whitehurst, & Angell, 1994) and to ensure that the groups were comparable across these variables.”
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“Dollaghan et al. (1999) used the same measures as Paradise et al.”
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“Nonstandardized measures such as language sampling also have been shown to demonstrate sensitivity to sociodemographic variables (Dollaghan et al., 1999).”
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Early identification of language delay by direct language assessment or parent report?
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“For example, it is likely that OME occurs more often among children from low-income families(67) and lower language skills are also more evident in children from low-income families as compared to middle income children.(68,69) Thus, consistent with these explanations, a history of OME may be a marker rather than a ca…”
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Fetal Brain Volume Predicts Neurodevelopment in Congenital Heart Disease
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The impact of child maltreatment on expressive syntax at 60 months
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“Dollaghan, Campbell, Paradise, Feldman, Janosky, Pitcairn and Kurs-Lasky (1999) demonstrated a correlation between maternal educational achievement and child language abilities.”
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Sarant, J. Z., Harris, D., Bennet, L. A., & Bant, S. (2014) · Ear and Hearing · doi:10.1097/aud.0000000000000022 · Cited by 151
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Child Behavior and Quality of Life in Pediatric Obstructive Sleep Apnea
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“(%) T&A 42 (100) NA Inguinal hernia repair NA 6 (15) Umbilical hernia repair NA 6 (15) Circumcision NA 5 (12) Videourodynamics NA 5 (12) Orchiopexy NA 3 (7) Tooth extraction NA 2 (5) Esophagogastroduodenoscopy NA 2 (5) Others* NA 12 (29) Duration of follow-up, mean (SD) [range], mo 5.”
BackgroundThe Use of MLU for Identifying Language Impairment in Preschool Children
Eisenberg, S. L., Fersko, T. M., & Lundgren, C. (2001) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/1058-0360(2001/028 · Cited by 144
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Syntactic Complexity During Conversation of Boys With Fragile X Syndrome and Down Syndrome
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“Similarly, SES impacts on children’s performance on experimental tests of grammar (Dollaghan et al. 1999, Huttenlocher et al. 2002) and on their online grammatical processing as measured via eye tracking (Huang et al. 2017).”
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Toub, T. S., Hassinger‐Das, B., Nesbitt, K. T., Ilgaz, H., Weisberg, D. S., Hirsh‐Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., Nicolopoulou, A., & Dickinson, D. K. (2018) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.01.010 · Cited by 157
Developmental Outcomes after Early or Delayed Insertion of Tympanostomy Tubes
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Spontaneous language markers of Spanish language impairment
Simon‐Cereijido, G., & Gutiérrez‐Clellen, V. F. (2007) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716407070166 · Cited by 118
“This was done because there is evidence that income level and maternal education are risk factors for language development (Dollaghan et al., 1999; Jewkes, 2005; Payne, Whitehurst, & Angell, 1994).”
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Price, J. R., Roberts, J. E., Vandergrift, N., & Martin, G. E. (2007) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2006.00881.x · Cited by 116
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Increases in maternal education and low-income children’s cognitive and behavioral outcomes.
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“…strong associations between levels of maternal education and children's academic outcomes , including language ability in early childhood (Dollaghan et al., 1999; Wen, Bulotsky-Shearer, Hahs-Vaughn, & Korfmacher, 2012), academic achievement throughout elementary, middle, and high school…”
Impact of Gender, Maternal Education, and Birth Order on the Development of Language Comprehension
Zambrana, I. M., Ystrøm, E., & Pons, F. (2012) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0b013e31823d4f83 · Cited by 112
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“As it has been reported in the literature on language development of children with normal hearing that better language was associated with higher maternal education (Dollaghan et al., 1999; Feldman et al., 2005) and socio-economic status (Horton-Ikard & Weismer, 2007; Walker, Greenwood, Hart, & Carta, 1994), we hypoth…”
BackgroundParadise, J. L., Dollaghan, C. A., Campbell, T. F., Feldman, H. M., Bernard, B. S., Colborn, D. K., Rockette, H. E., Janosky, J. E., Pitcairn, D. L., Kurs‐Lasky, M., et al. (2003) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.112.2.265 · Cited by 108
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Content and Form in the Narratives of Children with Specific Language Impairment
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“Generally, children from lower SES families have been found to have a more restricted vocabulary, lower ability to answer complex questions, and lower overall use of language with others (Dollaghan et al., 1999; Feagans & Fendt, 1991; Fenson et al., 1994; Hoff, 2003; Hoff & Tian, 2005; HoffGinsberg, 1991).”
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“While it is clear that test performance is likely to be closely associated with maternal education levels (Dollaghan et al. 1999), relatively little progress has been made trying to identify a ‘knowledge independent’ measure, although non-word repetition has been proposed as a potential candidate…”
BackgroundInfluence of preterm birth on early lexical and grammatical acquisition
Gayraud, F., & Kern, S. (2007) · First Language · doi:10.1177/0142723706075790 · Cited by 100
“These results can be explained in terms of the restructuring in the lexicon that is observed in typically developing children between 18 and 30 months (Fenson et al., 1993). Our second goal was to study the potential role of biological and/or social factors on early language development. Among the four factors taken i…”
ResultModels and determinants of vocabulary growth from kindergarten to adulthood
Beitchman, J. H., Jiang, H., Koyama, E., Johnson, C. J., Escobar, M. D., Atkinson, L. R., Brownlie, E. B., & Vida, R. (2008) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01878.x · Cited by 95
“…language development and vocabulary acquisition, particularly the educational status of the mother and the age of the mother at the birth of her first child (Basilio, Puccini, Silva, & Pedromônico, 2005; Dollaghan et al., 1999; Fekonja, Umek, & Kranjc, 2005; Pan, Rowe, Singer, & Snow, 2005).”
BackgroundSpoken Language Benefits of Extending Cochlear Implant Candidacy Below 12 Months of Age
Nicholas, J. G., & Geers, A. E. (2013) · Otology & Neurotology · doi:10.1097/mao.0b013e318281e215 · Cited by 95
“Mother’s Education Level Studies of children without hearing loss have documented a significant language advantage related to mothers’ education level, with mean PPVT scores of 110 for children whose mothers completed college, 101 for those who completed high school, and 90 for those who had less than a high school ed…”
BackgroundKnowledge gaps in the early growth of semantic feature networks
Sizemore, A. E., Karuza, E. A., Giusti, C., & Bassett, D. S. (2018) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-018-0422-4 · Cited by 98
Anda, S. D., Arias‐Trejo, N., Poulin‐Dubois, D., Zesiger, P., & Friend, M. (2015) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728914000820 · Cited by 101
Are early grammatical and phonological working memory abilities affected by preterm birth?
Sansavini, A., Guarini, A., Alessandroni, R., Faldella, G., Giovanelli, G., & Salvioli, G. (2006) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2006.06.009 · Cited by 92
“It cannot be excluded that social factors may affect other aspects of preterms’ and fullterms’ language development not examined in the present study, such as lexical competence or spontaneous language samples (Dollaghan et al., 1999).”
BackgroundShort-form versions of the Spanish MacArthur–Bates Communicative Development Inventories
Jackson‐Maldonado, D., Marchman, V. A., & Fernald, L. C. H. (2012) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716412000045 · Cited by 92
“Some findings suggest that parents from low-SES families may tend to overestimate their child’s abilities compared to higher SES parents, especially for early comprehension (Dollaghan et al., 1999; Feldman et al., 2000, 2003; Fenson et al., 1993; Reznick, 1990).”
BackgroundInfluentialBouchard, C., Trudeau, N., Sutton, A. E., Boudreault, M.-C., & Deneault, J. (2009) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716409990075 · Cited by 91
Measuring lexical diversity in children who stutter: application of vocd
Wagovich, S. A., & Ratner, N. B. (2002) · Journal of Fluency Disorders · doi:10.1016/s0094-730x(02)00162-6 · Cited by 90
Levine, D., Pace, A. E., Luo, R., Hirsh‐Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., de Villiers, J., Iglesias, A., & Wilson, M. S. (2018) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.11.006 · Cited by 113
“Similarly, Dollaghan et al., 1999) found comparable large effect sizes for the SES difference in 3-year-olds’ syntax, measured as the mean length of utterance (MLU) in a spontaneous speech sample, and vocabulary, measured as the number of different words from the speech sample (Hedges’ g = 0.76 and 0.81, respectively;…”
BackgroundInfluentialPeña, E. D., Gillam, R. B., Bedore, L. M., & Bohman, T. M. (2011) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/1058-0360(2011/10-0020 · Cited by 89
Developing Language Skills of Cocaine-Exposed Infants
Singer, L. T., Arendt, R. E., Minnes, S., Salvator, A. E., SIEGEL, A. C., & Lewis, B. A. (2001) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.107.5.1057 · Cited by 89
Common variation near ROBO2 is associated with expressive vocabulary in infancy
Pourcain, B. S., Cents, R. A. M., Whitehouse, A., Haworth, C. M. A., Davis, O. S. P., O’Reilly, P. F., Roulstone, S., Wren, Y. E., Ang, Q. W., Velders, F. P., et al. (2014) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms5831 · Cited by 88
“These have been previously linked to late language emergence in infancy 29 and the total number of spoken words in early childhood 30 respectively.”
Factors that influence vocabulary development in two‐year‐old children
Stokes, S. F., & Klee, T. M. (2008) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01991.x · Cited by 96
“Mother’s level of education (Dollaghan et al., 1999), family history of a speech/language delay (Bishop, Price, Dale, & Plomin, 2003; Zubrick, Taylor, Rice, & Slegers, 2007), child sex and early neurobiological growth (Zubrick et al., 2007), birth order/number of siblings of the child (Stokes,…”
BackgroundInfluentialYue, A., Jiang, Q., Wang, B., Abbey, C., Alexis Medina, D., Shi, Y., & Rozelle, S. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0221675 · Cited by 92
How Early Maternal Language Input Varies by Race and Education and Predicts Later Child Language
Vernon‐Feagans, L., Bratsch‐Hines, M., Reynolds, E., & Willoughby, M. T. (2019) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13281 · Cited by 88
The Neuroscience of Adolescence
Galván, A. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316106143 · Cited by 82
Language Development in Preschool-Age Children Adopted From China
Roberts, J. A., Pollock, K., Krakow, R. A., Price, J. R., Fulmer, K. C., & Wang, P. P. (2005) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2005/008 · Cited by 84
Davidson, L. S., Geers, A. E., & Nicholas, J. G. (2014) · Cochlear Implants International · doi:10.1179/1754762813y.0000000051 · Cited by 79
“As noted earlier, this elevated vocabulary level might be expected from any group of children with above-average parental education such as this one (Dollaghan et al., 1999).”
BackgroundTaxometric Analyses of Specific Language Impairment in 6-Year-Old Children
Dollaghan, C. A. (2011) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2011/10-0187 · Cited by 82
Structural Development of the Fictional Narratives of African American Preschoolers
Price, J. R., Roberts, J. E., & Jackson, S. C. (2006) · Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools · doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2006/020 · Cited by 80
False Belief and Emotion Understanding in Post‐institutionalized Children
Tarullo, A. R., Bruce, J., & Gunnar, M. R. (2007) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00372.x · Cited by 84
“Children reared in affluent, educationally enriched home environments are more likely to have advanced verbal abilities (Dollaghan, Campbell, Paradise, Feldman, Janosky & Pitcairn, 1999).”
Language delay in severely neglected children: A cumulative or specific effect of risk factors?
Sylvestre, A., & Mérette, C. (2010) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.10.003 · Cited by 89
“In terms of environmental factors, young children from poor economic environments (Hoff, 2003; Horwitz et al., 2003) or with less educated mothers (Dollaghan et al. 1999; Tomblin et al., 1997) may also have language development problems.”
BackgroundAttachment and cognitive skills: An investigation of mediating mechanisms
O'Connor, E., & McCartney, K. (2007) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2007.06.007 · Cited by 83
Rojas, R., Iglesias, A., Bunta, F., Goldstein, B. A., Goldenberg, C. N., & Reese, L. (2016) · International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.3109/17549507.2015.1081290 · Cited by 82
“As previously discussed, maternal education level is associated with language development (Dollaghan et al., 1999; Golberg et al., 2008; Walker, Greenwood, Hart, & Carta, 1994).”
BackgroundHendricks, A. E., & Adlof, S. M. (2017) · Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools · doi:10.1044/2017_lshss-16-0060 · Cited by 76
Spoken word recognition by Latino children learning Spanish as their first language
Hurtado, N., Marchman, V. A., & Fernald, A. E. (2007) · Journal of Child Language · doi:10.1017/s0305000906007896 · Cited by 76
“These results supplement the large body of literature using offline methods and parental reports that has documented lower language outcomes for children from disadvantaged backgrounds (e.g. Hart & Risley, 1995; Arriaga, Fenson, Cronan & Pethick, 1998; Dollaghan et al., 1999; Hoff, 2003).”
BackgroundResultPredictors of Second Language Acquisition in Latino Children With Specific Language Impairment
Gutiérrez-Clellen, V., Simón-Cereijido, G., & Sweet, M. (2012) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/1058-0360(2011/10-0090 · Cited by 74
Semantic Deficits in Children With Language Impairments
Brackenbury, T., & Pye, C. L. (2005) · Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools · doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2005/002 · Cited by 74
Language delay aggregates in toddler siblings of children with autism spectrum disorder
for the IBIS Network, Marrus, N. M., Hall, L., Paterson, S., Elison, J. T., Wolff, J. J., Swanson, M. R., Parish‐Morris, J., Eggebrecht, A. T., Pruett, J. R., et al. (2018) · Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1186/s11689-018-9247-8 · Cited by 73
Marchman, V. A., Shannon, K. A., Loi, E. C., Fernald, A. E., & Feldman, H. M. (2015) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2015.1038987 · Cited by 72
“These findings are consistent with other studies showing that features of children’s daily experiences linked to family background are important determinants of vocabulary and other language outcomes (Dollaghan et al., 1999).”
Result
Metadata
- Authors
- Dollaghan, C. A., Campbell, T. F., Paradise, J. L., Feldman, H. M., Janosky, J. E., Pitcairn, D. N., & Kurs-Lasky, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh (US)
- University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA
- Venue
- Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research
- Published
- 1999-12
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1432-1443
- ISSN
- 1092-4388 (ISSN-L)
- 1558-9102
- OpenAlex
- W2093177159
- Cited by
- 481
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 31 · 2018: 34 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 25 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 27
- FWCI
- 10.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (2r01hd026026-10a2, 5r29dc001858-05)
- National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (DC01858)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD 26026)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Hearing Impairment and Communication
- Keywords
- maternal education, preschool children, spontaneous speech, vocabulary size, consonant accuracy, language comprehension, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised, sociodemographic factors
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Age Factors, Child Language, Child, Preschool, Educational Status, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Language Development, Language Disorders, Language Tests, Male, Mothers, Prospective Studies, Rural Population, Speech, Urban Population
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