Spoor counts as indices of large carnivore populations: the relationship between spoor frequency, sampling effort and true density

Stander, P. E.

doi:10.1046/j.1365-2664.1998.00313.x

Cited by 151Wildlife Ecology and ConservationAnimal Ecology and Behavior StudiesCensus and Population Estimation

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Spoor counts as indices of large carnivore populations: the relationship between spoor frequency, sampling effort and true density

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Stander, P. E.·1998·Journal of Applied Ecology

DOI 10.1046/j.1365-2664.1998.00313.x

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Abstract

1. Studies of large carnivore populations and, particularly, reliable estimates of population density are necessary for effective conservation management. However, these animals are difficult to study, and direct methods of assessing population size and density are often expensive and time‐consuming. 2. Indirect sampling, by counting spoor, could provide repeatable and inexpensive measures of some population parameters. The relationship between true population density and indirect sampling results has seldom been described in large carnivore studies. 3. In northern Namibia the population densities of leopards, lions and wild dogs were measured through recognition of individuals and groups. Spoor counts were then conducted independently, to assess the relationship between true density and the distribution of spoor. 4. Sampling effort, both in terms of the number of roads and total road distance in a sample zone, and the intensity of sampling, had a marked effect on the accuracy and precision of spoor frequency calculations. 5. In a homogeneous habitat, leopard spoor were evenly spread along different roads and spoor frequency was independent of road length. Taking into account very low sample sizes, the spoor density of leopards, lions and wild dogs showed a strong linear correlation with true density. The slope of the regression for leopards was different to that of lions and wild dogs.

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Sample penetration for most LUTs was close to the value of 7 recommended for these techniques.
“Sample penetration (the ratio of sum of transect lengths (km) to survey area (km2)) for most LUTs was close to the value of 7 recommended for these techniques (Stander, 1998) (Table 2).”
From The impact of land reform on the status of large carnivores in Zimbabwe (2016) · cites this paper as Stander, 1998
The Discussion (page unavailable in our copy) reports that desired precision for leopard spoor counts was reached at about 6.5 km² of surface area per kilometre of road sampled, a value close to 7. But this is the inverse of the citing sentence’s transect-length-to-area ratio, and the paper presents it as a result for its experimental zone, not a general recommendation for these techniques. The source cannot establish whether most LUTs in the citing study were close to any value. (LLM, conf=0.84)
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“…calculating 95% confidence intervals from two randomly sampled inter-spoor 172 intervals with replacement, then progressively increasing the sample size and calculating fresh 173 confidence intervals with each sample (after Stander, 1998) using R version 3.2.0 (R 174 Development Core Team, 2015).”
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Authors: Stander, P. E.
Affiliations: University of Cambridge (GB)
Corresponding author: Stander, P. E.
Venue: Journal of Applied Ecology
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 1998-06
Volume: 35
Issue: 3
Pages: 378-385
ISSN: 0021-8901 (ISSN-L)
1365-2664
DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2664.1998.00313.x
OpenAlex: W2023094193
Cited by: 151
References: 22
Citations by year: 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 6
FWCI: 1.91
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 1314 d)
Locations: Journal of Applied Ecology (publishedVersion)
Funders: Ministry of Environment
Topics: Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Animal Ecology and Behavior Studies
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Census and Population Estimation
Keywords: large carnivores, population density estimation, indirect sampling, sampling effort, leopard, lion, wild dogs, Namibia, wildlife conservation management

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Spoor counts as indices of large carnivore populations: the relationship between spoor frequency, sampling effort and true density

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