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Why I am optimistic about the silicon-photonic route to quantum computing
Open accessAbstract
This is a short overview explaining how building a large-scale, silicon-photonic quantum computer has been reduced to the creation of good sources of 3-photon entangled states (and may simplify further). Given such sources, each photon needs to pass through a small, constant, number of components, interfering with at most 2 other spatially nearby photons, and current photonics engineering has already demonstrated the manufacture of thousands of components on two-dimensional semiconductor chips with performance that, once scaled up, allows the creation of tens of thousands of photons entangled in a state universal for quantum computation. At present the fully integrated, silicon-photonic architecture we envisage involves creating the required entangled states by starting with single-photons produced non-deterministically by pumping silicon waveguides (or cavities) combined with on-chip filters and nanowire superconducting detectors to herald that a photon has been produced. These sources are multiplexed into being near-deterministic, and the single photons then passed through an interferometer to non-deterministically produce small entangled states—necessarily multiplexed to near-determinism again. This is followed by a “ballistic” scattering of the small-scale entangled photons through an interferometer such that some photons are detected, leaving the remainder in a large-scale entangled state which is provably universal for quantum computing implemented by single-photon measurements. There are a large number of questions regarding the optimum ways to make and use the final cluster state, dealing with static imperfections, constructing the initial entangled photon sources and so on, that need to be investigated before we can aim for millions of qubits capable of billions of computational time steps. The focus in this article is on the theoretical side of such questions.
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In the citing paper
“an array of 18 SFWM-SPSs in SiO 2 -waveguides [47] (4 SFWM-SPSs in Si-microresonators [48]) can produce heralded single-photons with a 52% (50%) heralding efficiency and 95% (91%) photon indistinguishability from separated SPSs.”
From Integrated photonic quantum technologies (2020) · cites this paper as [48]
In the citing paper
“The first chip-to-chip entanglement distribution [73] ( Fig.3b ), and recently quantum teleportation [48] were demonstrated between two programmable Si-chips, that integrate all necessary components including the entangled photon sources and Bell analyser.”
From Integrated photonic quantum technologies (2020) · cites this paper as [48]
In the citing paper
“Recently, a state-of-the-art Si-photonic quantum device having an array of nearly-optimal FWM-SPSs in microresonators and high-quality reconfigurable circuits was coherently controlled to demonstrate and certificate the genuine multipartite entanglement [48].”
From Integrated photonic quantum technologies (2020) · cites this paper as [48]
In the citing paper
“This technology has seen enormous progress in recent years, [8][9][10][11] and may offer a realistic approach to realizing the complex circuits needed for scalable photonic quantum computing and quantum networks.12”
From Integrated-optics heralded controlled-NOT gate for polarization-encoded qubits (2018) · cites this paper as [12]
In the citing paper
“This is an attractive platform for QIP: it has room temperature operation, the possibility of robust miniaturisation through photonic integrated circuits; in general it harnesses the highly developed optical fibre-related technology for QIP purposes.38”
From Quantum generalisation of feedforward neural networks (2017) · cites this paper as [38]
In the citing paper
“Conventionally phase shifters built upon the electro-optic effect are known to work in the megahertz region and have extremely low loss.38”
From Quantum generalisation of feedforward neural networks (2017) · cites this paper as [38]
In the citing paper
“This circuit can be made more robust and miniaturised using silicon or silica optical waveguides.38”
From Quantum generalisation of feedforward neural networks (2017) · cites this paper as [38]
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Provazník, J., Marek, P., Laurat, J., & Filip, R. (2025) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.555180 · Cited by 3
The influence of experimental imperfections on photonic GHZ state generation
Wiesner, F., Chrzanowski, H. M., Pieplow, G., Schröder, T., Pappa, A., & Wolters, J. (2024) · New Journal of Physics · doi:10.1088/1367-2630/ad916f · Cited by 4
Cabanillas, J. M. F., Kramnik, D., Wang, I., Buchbinder, S., Ramesh, A., Kumar, P., Stojanovic, V. M., Khilo, A. N., & Popović, M. A. (2022) · Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics · doi:10.1364/cleo_si.2022.sth4h.4 · Cited by 3
“Single photon sources are a key building block for quantum photonics technologies and integrated silicon photonics is a promising platform for realizing them due to its compatibility with scalable, high-fidelity CMOS manufacturing [1,2].”
BackgroundRanjan, A., Patel, T., Gandhi, H., Silver, D., Cutler, W., & Tiwari, D. (2023) · International Conference for High Performance Computing, Networking, Storage and Analysis (SC) · doi:10.1145/3581784.3607058 · Cited by 3
Error metric for non-trace-preserving quantum operations
Shi, Y. B., & Waks, E. (2023) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.108.032609 · Cited by 5
“One prominent example of such errors is qubit leakage, observable across various quantum computing platforms, including photonics [8–11], super-conducting circuits [12–20], semiconductor spins [21–24], neutral atoms [25, 26], trapped ions [27–31], and topological qubits [32, 33].”
BackgroundOn-Chip Manipulation and Detection of Single Photons in Lithium Niobate Nanophotonic Circuits
Lomonte, E., Lenzini, F., Ferrari, S., Wolff, M. A., Schuck, C., & Pernice, W. H. P. (2020) · International Conference on Transparent Optical Networks · doi:10.1109/icton51198.2020.9203269 · Cited by 3
“This is an essential feature for the implementation of multiplexing schemes and fast-feedforward operations required for scalable optical quantum computing [9]-[11].”
MethodElectronic Chips Acting as Capacitors or Inductors when Laser Act as Information Transmitter
Yousif, M. A. M., Alsubaie, A. S., Saad, Z. A. A. A. S., & Abd-Alla, M. D. (2022) · East European Journal of Physics · doi:10.26565/2312-4334-2022-2-18 · Cited by 3
Mach-Zehnder Interferometer Cell for Realization of Quantum Computer; A Feasibility Study
Motaharifar, M., & Kaatuzian, H. (2023) · doi:10.1109/icee59167.2023.10334740 · Cited by 3
“C ONCLUSION Although superconducting qubits have been the mainstream type of qubits for a while, integrated photonics seems to be taking the lead as a promising realization for quantum computers [26].”
BackgroundFusion for high-dimensional linear-optical quantum computing with improved success probability
Üstün, G., Rieffel, E. G., Devitt, S. J., & Saied, J. (2025) · Physical Review Applied · doi:10.1103/l7bg-hc8c · Cited by 4
Active multiplexing for scalable generation and manipulation of photonic quantum states
Kaneda, F., & Yabuno, M. (2026) · Nano Convergence · doi:10.1186/s40580-026-00540-6 · Cited by 3
Photonic quantum information with time-bins: Principles and applications
Singh, A., Sethia, A., Esmaeilifar, L., Valivarthi, R., Sinclair, N., Spiropulu, M., & Oblak, D. (2026) · Physics Reports · doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2026.06.005 · Cited by 13
Wang, I., Cabanillas, J. M. F., Kramnik, D., Ramesh, A., Buchbinder, S., Kumar, P., Stojanovic, V. M., & Popović, M. A. (2022) · Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics · doi:10.1364/cleo_si.2022.sm3n.2 · Cited by 2
“Arrays of stochastic photon-pair generators based on spontaneous four-wave mixing (SFWM) are a key component of many proposed optical quantum computing and quantum networking architectures [1].”
BackgroundNanoelectronic Systems for Quantum Computing
Ferry, D. K. (2022) · Springer handbooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-79827-7_33 · Cited by 2
Mode-Entanglement in Silicon Waveguides Through Intermodal Four-Wave Mixing
Koefoed, J. G., Müller, R., & Rottwitt, K. K. (2022) · IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics · doi:10.1109/jstqe.2022.3224812 · Cited by 2
“The compatibility with the mature methods of complementary metaloxide semiconductor (CMOS) fabrication allows integration of potentially millions of components which is necessary for general-purpose quantum computers [14], [29].”
MethodPhotonic computing: an introduction
Huang, C., Shastri, B. J., & Pruncal, P. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-823491-4.00003-5 · Cited by 5
Bosonic Randomized Benchmarking with Passive Transformations
Arienzo, M., Grinko, D., Kliesch, M., & Heinrich, M. (2025) · PRX Quantum · doi:10.1103/prxquantum.6.020305 · Cited by 9
Engineering a cubic quantum nondemolition gate with mesoscopic optical parametric interactions
Yanagimoto, R., Nehra, R., Ng, E., Marandi, A., & Mabuchi, H. (2026) · Optica Quantum · doi:10.1364/opticaq.607228 · Cited by 5
Quantum Information Processing with Superconducting Nanowire Single-Photon Detectors
Yamamoto, T. (2019) · IEICE Transactions on Electronics · doi:10.1587/transele.2018sdi0002 · Cited by 2
Relaxation of Electron and Hole Spin Qubits in III–V Quantum Dots
Bechtold, A., Simmet, T., Sbrezny, F., Sinitsyn, N. A., Müller, K., & Finley, J. J. (2023) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9783527837427.ch16 · Cited by 2
Multiport universal unitary interferometer design
Kondratyev, I. V., Dyakonov, I. V., Saygin, M. Y., Straupe, S. S., & Kulik, S. P. (2020) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/5.0012752 · Cited by 1
Optical algorithm for derivative of real-valued functions
Magiotto, M. H., Zanin, G. L., Cardoso, W. B., Avelar, A. T., & Gomes, R. M. (2024) · Optics & Laser Technology · doi:10.1016/j.optlastec.2024.112137 · Cited by 1
“Another interesting aspect of optical computers is related to the possibility of integration with optical quantum computers [7, 8].”
BackgroundHigh Performance Passives for Quantum Photonics
Dudley, E. F., Cabanillas, J. M. F., Park, B., Sohn, D. B., Jadidi, M., Lee, J.-W., Khodami, M., Kamineni, V. K., Vidrighin, M. D., & Thompson, M. G. (2025) · Optical Fiber Communication Conference · doi:10.1364/ofc.2025.th1g.3 · Cited by 1
On-chip near 100 dB pump filtering using silicon ion implantation
Varri, A., Wendland, D., Pradip, R., Taherinia, S., Zhao, Z., Lomonte, E., Lenzini, F., Brückerhoff‐Plückelmann, F., & Pernice, W. H. P. (2025) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.576868 · Cited by 1
Exploring nonlinearity-loss tradeoffs in foundry fabricated silicon integrated photon pair sources
Dixon, T., Marin, Y. E., Faruque, I. I., & Balram, K. C. (2026) · Optics Letters · doi:10.1364/ol.585144 · Cited by 1
Chip-scale high spectral purity micro-ring photon-pair source based on dual-pulse control
Hou, B., Chen, D., Ma, H., Zhao, Z., Liang, Q., Zhang, B., Ye, L., Huang, Q., Wang, D., Dai, T., et al. (2026) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.589347 · Cited by 1
Single-photon emitters and spin–photon interfaces in silicon
Sandholzer, K., Berkman, I. R., Deák, P., Errando-Herranz, C., Filippatos, P., Gali, Á., Gritsch, A., & Reiserer, A. (2026) · Applied Physics Reviews · doi:10.1063/5.0326694 · Cited by 5
Photonic Integration for Quantum Communications
Mookherjea, S. (2018) · Optical Fiber Communication Conference · doi:10.1364/ofc.2018.m4h.1 · Cited by 1
Harmonizing continuous noise to build a modular photonic quantum computer
Arzani, F. (2021) · doi:10.22331/qv-2021-03-29-51 · Cited by 1
Quantum Processors in Silicon Photonics
Paesani, S., & Laing, A. (2021) · Topics in applied physics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-68222-4_11 · Cited by 1
Quantum-Correlated Photon-Pair Source with Integrated Feedback Control in 45 nm CMOS
Kramnik, D., Wang, I., Cabanillas, J. M. F., Ramesh, A., Buchbinder, S., Zarkos, P. G., Adamopoulos, C. G., Kumar, P., Popović, M. A., & Stojanovic, V. M. (2022) · European Solid-State Circuits Conference (ESSCIRC) · doi:10.1109/esscirc55480.2022.9911513 · Cited by 1
“INTRODUCTION Integrated silicon photonics is an appealing quantum photonics technology platform due to its compatibility with scalable, high-fidelity CMOS manufacturing and its ability to operate at standard telecommunication wavelengths [1], [2].”
BackgroundSimulation of Linear Optical Interferometers (Extended Abstract)
Heurtel, N., Mansfield, S., Sénellart, J., & Valiron, B. (2022) · IEEE International Conference on Quantum Computing and Engineering (QCE) · doi:10.1109/qce53715.2022.00080 · Cited by 1
“Photonic quantum technologies consisting of single-photon sources coupled to linear optical interferometers, which may be parametrisable and take the form of integrated circuits, coupled in turn to photon detectors are a promising route to implementing quantum computation [1].”
BackgroundCustom Nonlinearity Profile for Integrated Quantum Light Sources
Peter, Y.-A., & Quesada, N. (2023) · Physical Review Applied · doi:10.1103/physrevapplied.19.054033 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Rudolph, T.
- Affiliations
- Imperial College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Rudolph, Terry
- ORCID
- Rudolph, Terry
- Venue
- APL Photonics
- Publisher
- AIP Publishing
- Published
- 2017-03-01
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 3
- ISSN
- 2378-0967 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2502799522
- Cited by
- 350
- References
- 85
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 50 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 43 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 9
- FWCI
- 19.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- APL Photonics (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EP/L024020/1)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Quantum Information and Cryptography
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Quantum Computing Algorithms and Architecture
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Photonic and Optical Devices
- Keywords
- silicon photonics, quantum computing, cluster states, three-photon entanglement, entangled photon sources, heralded single-photon source, silicon waveguides, interferometer, universal quantum computation, integrated photonics
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